Food, Cooking and Potteries: A Preliminary Study on the Social Developments of the Neolithic Mijiaya Site in Guanzhong Area, China

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2253453/v1

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Food, Cooking and Potteries: A Preliminary Study on the Social Developments of the Neolithic Mijiaya Site in Guanzhong Area, China

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2253453/v1

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The origins of agriculture and pottery were generally believed to contribute to the changes of human food resources and the innovations of cooking technologies in the Neolithic China. Hence, the investigations of the co-evolutions in human food resources, cooking technologies and pottery functions will provide a new perspective for understanding the ancient social developments. Here, taking the Mijiaya site as an example, we present the multiple analyses on the plant microfossils of pottery remains, the AMS ¹⁴C dating and isotopes of animal bones, and the types and textures of potteries in comparison with those from some surrounding sites in northern China during the Late Neolithic period. The results indicate that the diets of Mijiaya peoples (ca. 3093‒1961 cal BC) were heavily reliant on the diversified crops and livestock supplemented with some gathering plants and hunting animals; meanwhile, Mijiaya peoples used a variety of ways to refine the pottery functions for the complex food processing. Moreover, the food processing also potentially promoted the development in animal husbandry, basing on their feeding strategy and eating patterns. These preliminarily suggest that the coordinated development in the food, cooking and potteries had contributed to the social complexity in the Late Neolithic China.

Mijiaya site

Late Neolithic period

Diet

Pottery function

Plant microfossils and isotopes

Food provides the energy for the basal metabolism of human body; and more significantly, combined with the related tools and technologies, it profoundly contributes to the human evolution on the behavior, culture and society (Revedin et al. 2015; Strang et al. 2017; Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017). Hence, exploring the food, tools and technologies has been paid more attention for understanding the human subsistence strategies, social developments and environmental adaptions during the Neolithic period (e.g. Piperno et al. 2004; Yang et al. 2015; Revedin et al. 2015; Strang et al. 2017; Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017; Liu L et al. 2019a; Du et al. 2020; Zhang Y et al. 2022). As the key technological revolutions in the Neolithic period, the agricultural origins and the pottery productions respectively resulted in the changes of human food resources and the innovation of cooking technology, and they also contributed to the shifts of human subsistence strategies and the social developments in the Neolithic China (Sassaman 1993; Yan 2000; Yang et al. 2014; Lanehart 2015; Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017; Liu 2017; Liu et al. 2018a; Liu L et al. 2019a). Hence, the investigations of the co-evolutions in human food resources, cooking technologies and pottery functions will provide a new perspective for understanding the driving force for social developments in the Neolithic China.

As the indicator of processing food, the residues in many kinds of stone/mussel tools, pottery vessels and others had been investigated by using many methods, such as the plant microfossils, fatty acids and proteomics, stable isotopes, microbiology, and so on (e.g. Piperno et al. 2004; Tao et al. 2012; Wan et al. 2012a; Craig et al. 2013; Wang et al. 2016; Musaubach and Berόn 2017; Liu et al. 2020; Guðmundsson et al. 2021; Obata and Kunikita 2022; Zhang Y et al. 2022). According to the analyses of the pottery residues and form-deduced functions, the diverging functions of most potteries from the archaeological sites in China were identified, such as cooking (includes steaming, boiling, baking and fermenting), storage, presentation, serving of food, and so on; the pottery functions are also closely associated with the processing food types and the pottery textures and forms (e.g. Song 1993; McGovern et al. 2004; Fan et al. 2005; Zheng and Jiang 2007; Tao et al. 2009; Lu et al. 2011; Wan et al. 2012b; Lanehart 2015; Yao et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2016a; Wang et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2018a, 2018b; Sun 2018; Sun et al. 2019; Liu L et al. 2019a; Yuan et al. 2021; Guan et al. 2022). Moreover, the various food resources (e.g. crops, gathering plants, raising and hunting animals, fishing food, etc.) were processed and made into many foodstuffs (e.g. husking granule, grinding powder, shaping noodle, porridge, etc.) in the Neolithic China (e.g. Lu et al. 2005; Lanehart 2015; Yao et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2016a, 2016b; Sun et al. 2019; Liu et al. 2020).

The Guanzhong area was a key center of prehistoric cultures in the northern China. Multiple evidences indicated that the humans engaged in the diversified subsistence strategies in Guanzhong area during the Late Neolithic period, which were dominated by the mixed agricultures (mainly consist of millet, rice and wheat) and animal husbandry supplemented with the gathering and hunting (ZAT 2004; Pechenkina et al. 2005; Zhang J et al. 2010a; Liu et al. 2013; Zhong et al. 2015; Chen et al. 2016; Zhao 2017; Liu L et al. 2019b). Meanwhile, a large quantity of pottery vessels with various forms were discovered in this area, suggesting that a center of pottery production and the utilized pottery assemblage could have been established (Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017; Li et al. 2022). Previous researches of the food processing were mainly focused on the alcohol fermentation techniques with the diverse materials and specialized potteries for exploring the agricultural subsistence, feasting activities and social complexity during the Neolithic period (Wang et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2018b, 2019a).

However, it is unclear that how human refined the pottery functions for the complex food processing, as the developments of agriculture and pottery production during the Neolithic period. There are no more details about the influences of food processing on the co-evolutions between humans and its surroundings (e.g. animals and plants). Hence, the Mijiaya site, one vital Neolithic site in Guanzhong area, will be took as an example to explore the developments of the food resources, pottery functions and food processing technologies and investigate their influences on the human managements in animals. Finally, we will try to understand the driving force for the social developments in the Neolithic China.

Archaeological background

The Mijiaya site (109.03° E, 34.30° N) is situated in the east of Chan River and 2.7 km to the Neolithic Banpo site, in Baqiao district, Xi’an city, Shaanxi province, North China (Fig. 1). This site was systematically excavated by the Shaanxi Academy of Archaeology in 2004‒2006 and the Xi’an Municipal Institute of Cultural Heritage Preservation and Archaeology in 2010‒2011. Abundant remains (e.g. house, ash pit, tomb, stoneware, animal bones, pottery, stove, etc.) were unearthed; a large quantity of pottery vessels were identified as jiandiping (pointed-based amphora), jia (tripod vessel), li (tripod vessel), dou (pedestal dish), pen (basin), guan (high-necked jar with globular belly and jar with handles ), qigai (tower-shaped lid), and so on; they were mainly characterized as the sandy or clay potteries, and some of them (e.g. li, jia, guan, etc.) were obviously adhered with the smoked traces (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019).

Based on the pottery typology, the Mijiaya site was divided to three archaeological phases, respectively belonging to the late Yangshao Culture, Miaodigou II Culture and Keshengzhuang Culture. The Keshengzhuang Culture was believed to be a typical ‘Longshan Culture’ in Guanzhong area (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019). The formation of Keshengzhuang Culture was generally contributed by the development of Yangshao Culture continuously amalgamated with some surrounding cultures, for instance, Qingliangang Culture, Dawenkou Culture, Daxi Culture, Qujialing Culture, and so on (Yan 2009).

Sample collection

Six animal bones from the three archaeological phases of the Mijiaya site were selected for the analyses of AMS ¹⁴C dating and stable isotopes. Many pottery li appeared in the Keshengzhuang phase, and the interior surface of some pottery li feet was observed to be adhered by the carbonized residues (Fig. 2a). Pottery guan was the most common pottery form in this site, and the imprints of carbonized seeds were found on the base of one pottery guan (Fig. 2b). Hence, the two potteries were selected to extract the starches and phytoliths from these residues for preliminarily exploring the pottery functions. All samples were excavated from the Mijiaya site in 2010 to 2011 (details in Table 1).

Table 1

The information, ¹⁴C-data, C and N contents and stable isotopic data of all samples from the Mijiaya site
Cultural strata	Burial context	Common name	Lab No.	Conventional Age (BP)	Calendar calibration (cal. BC, 2σ)	C %	N %	C/N	δ¹³C‰	δ¹⁵N‰
Yangshao	2011XBM19# T0203 H3	deer (humerus)	Beta-571644	4090 ± 30	2859–2497	40.8	14.6	3.3	‒19.7	6.0
	2011XBM19# T0203 H1	pig (humerus)	Beta-571645	4380 ± 30	3093–2911	40.6	14.8	3.2	‒9.4	8.7
	2011XBM19^# T0308③:55	pottery li	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/
Miaodigou II	2011XBM19# T0408H18	deer (femur)	Beta-571646	3680 ± 30	2192–1961	40.6	14.4	3.3	‒19.2	5.1
Miaodigou II	2011XBM19# T0308H87	cattle (limb)	Beta-571647	3730 ± 30	2272–2032	40.3	14.5	3.2	‒13.0	6.6
Keshengzhuang	2011XBM19# T0308H70:1	cattle (rib)	Beta-571648	3700 ± 30	2199–1980	41.5	15.2	3.2	‒12.3	9.4
	2011XBM19# T0301H13	cattle? (limb)	Beta-571649	3800 ± 30	2343–2138	41.2	14.9	3.2	‒14.7	7.2
	2010XBM10^#T0401②a	pottery guan	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/

Experimental methods and statistical analysis

The bone collagen was extracted by using the modified procedure outlined by Longin (Longin 1971) in the Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory. The main processes consist of the initial cleaning stage, the dissolution of mineral fraction with 0.2 N hydrochloric acid solutions (HCl) at ~ 21°C, and the removal of secondary organics with 1%‒2% alkali solutions (50/50 wt/wt % NaOH) at room temperature. The extracted collagen was then analyzed by IRMS (Thermo Fisher Delta V Advantage (50‒40,000 mV), wrapped within a standard IRMS tin boat and placed into an auto-dispenser on a Costech 4010 Elemental Analyzer (EA)) for the δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N values and C, N contents. The standards are traceable to NIST RM 8539, 8540, 8541 and 8542. The δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values were relative to VPDB-1, and the analytical precision was 0.3‰. The isotopic results are shown in Table 1.

Then, the bone collagen, which was identified to be well preserved, was dated by accelerator mass spectroscopy (AMS) ¹⁴C in the Beta Analytic Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory. The dates were calibrated using IntCal 20 (Reimer et al. 2020) and OxCal v4.4.4 (https://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal.html). The dating results are shown in Table 1.

The residue samples were prepared by using the modified procedure outlined by Piperno (1988) and Lentfer and Boyd (1998) in the Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology (IVPP), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). The interior surface of the pottery li foot was gently cleaned with a dental brush and distilled water to eliminate the possibly adhering sediment; then, it was filled with 15 ml distilled water and shaken in an ultrasonic bath for 15 minutes at room temperature to completely dislodge the adhering residues. Then, the solution was transferred to 15 ml centrifuge tube and centrifuged (3000 rpm for 3 min), and the supernatant was pipetted off. A 10 ml of 5% solution of EDTA (Na₂EDTA·2H₂O) was added to the tube, and it was shaken for 2 hours for easing dispersal. After that, the residue was washed for three times and centrifuged. The surface of the carbonized seed imprints on the base of the pottery guan was gently scraped off by using a clean blade and collected within a 1.5 ml centrifuge tube. Then, the surrounding sediments were also sampled and dispersed with EDTA solution, and the starches and phytoliths were extracted from the sediments by using the heavy liquid ZnBr₂ at a specific gravity of 2.4. Finally, all samples were mounted in 1:1 (vol/vol) glycerin/ distilled water solution on a microscope slide and examined under a light microscope (Nikon ECLIPSE LV100 POL) at 500X magnification. The shape and distinctive features of each starch/ phytolith was recorded and photographed under nonpolarized light and/or polarized light.

Finally, based on the excavation reports of the Mijiaya site in 2004‒2006 and 2010‒2011 (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019), the textures, colors, types and assemblages of potteries from the different culture strata will be statistically analyzed, especially the appearances of new pottery types and the pottery with the smoked traces.

Identification of contaminations and the δ ¹³ C and δ ¹⁵ N values of animal bones from the Mijiaya site

The contents of C and N in the collagen extracted from these animal bones in the Mijiaya site respectively range from 40.3% – 41.5% and 14.4% – 15.2% with atomic C/N ratios 3.2–3.3, which are in the ranges of the collagen with C (15.3% – 47.0%) and N (5.5% – 17.3%) contents and C/N ratios (2.9–3.6) generally considered well preserved for the stable isotopic analysis (DeNiro 1985; Ambrose 1990). As the Fig. 3 shows, the δ¹³C values of the deer are ‒19.7‰ and ‒19.2‰, with an average of ‒19.5‰ ± 0.4‰ (n = 2); the δ¹⁵N values are 6.0‰ and 5.1‰, with an average of 5.6‰ ± 0.6‰ (n = 2). One pig displays a δ¹³C value of ‒9.4‰ and a δ¹⁵N value of 8.7‰. All the cattle have δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values ranging from ‒14.7‰ to ‒12.3‰ (mean of ‒13.3‰ ± 1.2‰, n = 3) and from 6.6‰ to 9.4‰ (mean of 7.7‰ ± 1.5‰, n = 3), respectively. Based on the generally isotopic fractionation between diet and bone collagen (+ 5‰) (Bocherens et al. 1994; Cerling and Harris 1999), the lowest δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values of deer from the Mijiaya site indicate they mainly consumed the C₃ plants; in contrast, this pig diet was dominated by the C₄-based food, and the cattle were reliant on the mixed C₃ and C₄ plants.

AMS ¹⁴C- dating of animal bones from the Mijiaya site

The radiocarbon dating of animal collagen shows that the ages of the late Yangshao phase, Miaodigou II phase and Keshengzhuang phase in the Mijiaya site can be dated to ca. 3093‒2497 cal. BC, ca. 2272‒1961 cal. BC and ca. 2343‒1980 cal. BC, respectively (Table 1). The results are consistent with the judgment given through the archaeological remains (pottery typology) in this site (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019). This provides a new evidence for establishing the cultural chronology in Guanzhong area, especially for discussing the chronological relationship between Miaodigou II Culture and Keshengzhuang Culture (Liang 1987, 1994).

Starch grains and phytoliths extracted from the pottery residues

The pottery residues yield 40 starch grains. The most of them are from the carbonized residues of pottery li (35 grains) that were generally related with the processing food, and only five grains are from the pottery guan. According to the morphological observation and measurement of these starch grains in the microscope, they are classified into five types (Fig. 4). The type A, type B and type C are identified to be respectively from millets (Panicum miliaceum and/or Setaria italica), job’s tears (C. lacryma-jobi) and Triticeae, based on some reference data (the details in supplementary material and Table S1). Moreover, some grains show the breakage of hilum, deformation and partial loss of shape, loss of extinction cross and appearance of centric hollows (Fig. 4i, k, m, p, r). These damages are probably consistent with the food processing (Ge et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2016).

In addition, a total of 42 phytoliths are extracted from the pottery li and guan. Based on the classification and characteristics of phytoliths in some published literatures (Piperno 1988; Wang and Lu 1993, 2012; Wu 2008; Sun et al. 2012), more than eight phytolith types are identified, including the double-peaked glume cells, bulliform, η-shaped phytoliths, rectangular, bilobate, rondel, elongate echinate, acicular and smooth-elongate (Fig. 5, Table S1). Thereinto, 12 parallel bilobates phytoliths forming in the rice leaves and the η-shaped phytoliths presenting in the millet glume (P. miliaceum) are recovered from the pottery guan. By contrast, the more diversified phytoliths, including six parallel bilobates phytoliths and three rice bulliform phytoliths forming in the rice leaves and four double-peaked glume cells from the rice husk, are extracted from the pottery li. Most of the recovered phytoliths (61.9%) are associated with the crops, especially the enrichment of parallel bilobates phytoliths in pottery guan, suggesting the human agricultural activity and pottery utilization.

Statistical analysis on the primary forms and textures of potteries from the different cultural strata in the Mijiaya site

The various pottery vessels discovered from the different cultural strata in the Mijiaya site were considered to belong to the late Yangshao Culture, Miaodigou II Culture and Keshengzhuang Culture (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019). According to the excavation reports of the Mijiaya site in 2004–2006 and 2010–2011(SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019), it can be mainly concluded that the significant changes are observed in the pottery assemblages and textures. Particularly, the certain types of Yangshao vessels (jiandiping and loudou) were substituted by the rising of some new pottery types (such as li and jia) in the Keshengzhuang phase (Fig. 6).

The most common pottery form in the Mijiaya site is guan-jar during all the times (Fig. 6). 89.2% of the pottery guan from the late Yangshao phase are red-sandy, and 25.8% of these potteries are adhered with the smoked traces. By contrast, the pottery guan from the Keshengzhuang phase mainly are grey-sandy (50.9%) and grey-clay (31.6%), and only six potteries (10.5%) were observed to be adhered with the smoked traces. This indicates that the percentage of the clay pottery guan (33.4%) had obviously increased in the Keshengzhuang phase. Meanwhile, the new types (li and jia) are respectively up to 16.1% and 8.5% in the pottery assemblage in the Keshengzhuang phase. The most of pottery li and jia are grey-sandy, and 20.6% of the pottery li are adhered with the smoked traces.

Additionally, six pottery stoves were unearthed from the Yangshao Cultural stratum in the Mijiaya site, but the stove site has not been found yet. By comparison, five stove sites have been recovered from the Keshengzhuang cultural stratum, and these stoves (the rounded belly with small mouth and wide base, pocket-shape belly with flat base, oval belly with rounded bottom, or cylindrical belly) are believed to be related with the forms of the cooking potteries. Hence, all of these give us a hint that the changes in the pottery forms and textures in the different cultural strata of the Mijiaya site are possibly associated with the varied pottery functions for the food processing.

Subsistence strategies and the diversified food resources in the Mijiaya site

The increased evidences from the archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological studies documented that the millet cultivation and animal husbandry (generally with the high proportions, as shown in the Fig. 7 and Table S2, S3) had been dominant in the human subsistence strategies in the Guanzhong area of northern China during the Late Neolithic period (e.g. Yuan 2015; Zhao 2020). The stable isotopic evidences further reflected that the crop millets and livestock had been took as the staple foods for humans, and the crop millets also paid a key role in the animal husbandry in many Neolithic sites, basing on their higher δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N values (Fig. 8 and Table S4), such as Yuhuazhai site (Zhang X et al. 2010; Zhao 2017), Quanhucun site (Zhang J et al. 2010b; Hu et al. 2014; SPIA et al. 2014), Xinglefang site (Hu et al. 2011a; Liu et al. 2013; Hu et al. 2020), Dongying site (Hu 2010; Chen et al. 2016) and Yangguanzhai site (Hu et al. 2011b; Zhong et al. 2020). Meanwhile, the cultivated rice had spread to here as early as the early Yangshao period (e.g. Zhang J et al. 2010a; Zhao 2017), and the rice agriculture had relatively increased in importance in the Longshan period (Fig. 7) (ZAT 2004; Zhang J et al. 2010b; Liu et al. 2013; Zhong et al. 2015). Moreover, the eastward dispersal of the crops and livestock (e.g. wheat, sheep, cattle, etc.) firstly emerging in the western end of Eurasiac continent before 3000 BC also contributed to the more diversified food resources in the Late Neolithic northern China (Frachetti 2012; Dodson et al. 2014; Lu et al. 2017; Liu X et al. 2019). Additionally, the regional geography with warm climate was advantageous for the agricultural and social developments, and it also influenced the human food choices in the Late Neolithic northern China (e.g. Lu and Zhang 2008; Zhao et al. 2020; Lander 2020; Dong et al. 2021; Dong et al. 2022).

This study provides a new evidence for the Mijiaya peoples engaging in the rice agriculture in the Late Neolithic period, since the various rice phytoliths (include the parallel bilobates, rice bulliform and double-peaked glume cells from the rice leaves and husk) were extracted from the pottery residues (Fig. 5). The high δ¹³C values of the domestic animals (Fig. 8) and the discovery ofη-shaped phytoliths from the broomcorn millet husk (Fig. 5-q) suggest that the Mijiaya peoples also engaged in the millet agriculture, and the raising animals were heavily reliant on the millet-based food. Moreover, the plentiful animal bones and the various bone/horn tools (e.g. arrowhead and awl) found in the Mijiaya site (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019) document that the animal husbandry and the hunting activity (e.g. pig, cattle, deer, etc.) were also practiced by the Mijiaya peoples. Moreover, integrated with the previous research on the plant microfossils obtained from the Yangshao potteries in this site (Wang et al. 2016), it can be concluded that the various gathering plants, such as job’s tears (Fig. 4), were also used by the Mijiaya peoples. Hence, it can be deduced that the Mijiaya peoples subsisted on the diversified subsistence strategies in the Late Neolithic period, which was advantageous for their social developments.

Pottery functions and the food processing in the Mijiaya site

A large quantity of pottery vessels with various forms were discovered in the Mijiaya site (SPIA 2012; SHCSNU and XMICHPA 2019); the pottery guan-jar is the most common pottery form in the Yangshao and Longshan phases, and these potteries possessed the diversified textures, colors and subtypes (Fig. 6). Previous researches show that the pottery guan-jar with multiple functions (e.g. cooking, storage, fermentation, etc.) were used to process the various foods (e.g. crops, gathering plants, animal fats, etc.) and/or boil water (e.g. McGovern et al. 2004; Wan et al. 2012b; Lanehart 2015; Wang et al. 2017; Sun et al. 2018; Liu L et al. 2019a), which is commonly associated with the pottery textures and/or subtypes. For instance, the cooking potteries were generally made of the sand-inclusion materials for resisting the break during the heating process, and these potteries were generally adhered with the smoked traces; by contrast, the potteries utilized for the presentation and serving of food mainly were clay (Fan et al. 2005; Lu et al. 2018). Moreover, the various subtypes of the pottery guan-jar, respectively with the deep belly, decorative border or two handles, were used to cook the different foods and/or boil water (Sun et al. 2018). In Mijiaya site, the percentage of the sandy pottery guan had obviously decreased (Fig. 6), and a smaller number of potteries were adhered with the smoked traces in the Keshengzhuang phase. This gives a hint that the pottery guan-jar possibly had been reduced in the cooking function in the Longshan period.

As to the stone tools (Yang et al. 2016a), the phenomena of one pottery form with multiple functions were also observed in the pottery pen-basin, weng-urn (Sun et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2018a) and jiandiping-pointed-based amphora (Liu 2017; Sun 2018; Liu L et al. 2019a) in the Neolithic China. For example, the functions of the pottery pen-basin can be briefly summarized in the sandy flat-based basin used for boiling (Yao et al. 2016), the perforated basin used for steaming and funneling (Liu L et al. 2019a), the spouted basin used for fermenting and filtering (Liu et al. 2018b), and the basin with carved grooves used for grinding/crushing, filtering and boiling (Song 1993; Tao et al. 2009; Sun et al. 2019). Meanwhile, the more evidences show that the diversified pottery forms, including li, jia, gui, pen, fu, weng, ding, yan, etc., were all used to cook the food mainly by the boiling and steaming methods, especially in the Longshan period (Lu et al. 2011; Zheng et al. 2012; Lanehart 2015; Yang et al. 2016a; Yao et al. 2016; Sun et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2018a; Sun et al. 2019). In this study, the pottery li and jia with the relatively high percentages had appeared in the pottery assemblage in the Longshan period (Fig. 6), and most of them had the grey-sandy body commonly with the smoked traces. Integrated with the damaged starch grains extracted from the pottery li-tripod vessel (Fig. 4), it can be deduced that the pottery li and jia from the Mijiaya site were also used for cooking food instead of some pottery guan-jar. This is possibly one reason for the changes in the textures of the pottery guan-jar from the late Yangshao phase to the Longshan phase in the Mijiaya site.

Additionally, the pottery assemblage (consists of the globular jar and perforated basin) for the alcohol fermentation from the pre-Yangshao sites in Guanzhong area had been innovated to be a special unit (includes the pointed-based amphora, flat-based bottle, urn and funnel) in the Yangshao period; meanwhile, the shifts of the beer recipes were also contributed by the local agricultural development, especially the millet and rice cultivations (McGovern et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2016; Liu et al. 2018a, 2018b, 2020; Liu L et al. 2019a). Hence, the changes in the pottery assemblages were also associated with the special food processing and the advanced technology. However, the pointed-based amphora as the wine vessel (Liu 2017) disappeared in the Longshan period in the Mijiaya site; meanwhile, some new pottery vessels (e.g. jia-tripod vessel, gui-tripod pitcher, zhong-goblet and he-spouted ewer) had been created (Fig. 6). According to the functions of the same bronze vessels from the Bronze Age sites (McGovern et al. 2005; Wu 2009; Wang 2016; Zhang 2017), some of these new potteries were possibly used as the wine vessels. All of these indicate that the most basic principle of the changes in the pottery forms was to meet the same functional requirements for the food processing during the Neolithic period. Sometime, the potteries and stone tools were used together for the complex food processing (Yang et al. 2016a; Yao et al. 2016). Otherwise, the pottery stoves and stove sites were all unearthed from the different phases in the Mijiaya site. The stoves, as the auxiliary tools for the food processing, provide a new perspective for exploring the efficiency of food processing technology.

In sum, a variety of ways had been taken by the Mijiaya peoples to refine the pottery functions for the complex food processing. These ways were focused on the changes in the textures and/or the diversified functions of one pottery form, the variety of the special pottery assemblages, and the creation and utilization of more new forms. Otherwise, many archeological evidences show that the multiple centers of the pottery production and the utilized pottery assemblages could have been established in the Late Neolithic northern China (Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017; Li et al. 2022), such as the Dongying site, Quanhucun site, Xiaweiluo site, Xinzhai site, Miaodigou site, Sanliqiao site, as well as the Mijiaya site (Fig. S1). Integrated with the diversified forms and textures (e.g. sandy, clay, plant inclusions, etc.) of potteries with the diverging functions (e.g. cooking, storage, presentation, serving of foods, etc.), many cooking methods (e.g. steaming, boiling, baking, fermenting, etc.) and various foodstuffs (e.g. husking, granule, powder, noodle, etc.) in the Neolithic China (e.g. Song 1993; McGovern et al. 2004; Lu et al. 2005; Tao et al. 2009; Lu et al. 2011; Wan et al. 2012b; Lanehart 2015; Yao et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2016; Yang et al. 2016a, 2016b; Wang et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2018a, 2018b; Sun 2018; Sun et al. 2019; Liu L et al. 2019a; Liu et al. 2020; Guan et al. 2022), it can be deduced that the development of the pottery production and their functional complexity had possibly met the needs of the human daily life. Moreover, combined with the large Yangshao houses, pottery stoves and vessel assemblages, the refining food processing was deemed to be not only for satisfying with the nutritional needs of humans, but also for their spiritual enjoyment in the feasting and ritual activities (Lanehart 2015; Liu et al. 2018a). Hence, the developments of the pottery function and food processing had also potentially contributed to the social complexity in the Late Neolithic China.

Influences of the agricultural development and food processing on the animal feeding practices

The earliest domestic pigs in China can be dated back to the Early Neolithic period (ca. 9000 BP), and the pig husbandry was gradually intensified in the northern China and the pigs were taken as the staple food as well as the ritual use for humans during the Middle and Late Neolithic periods, which was believed to be mainly contributed by the origin and development of the millet agriculture (Luo 2012; Xiang et al. 2017; Dong and Yuan 2020; Zhang et al. 2021; Zhang M et al. 2022). Meanwhile, the pig husbandry also promoted the expansion of millet agriculture owing to the manuring practices by humans in the Late Neolithic northern China (Wang et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2022). The biology, behavior and evolution of pig (Sus scrofa) and its utilization and management by humans have been explored for understanding the pig domestication (Evin et al. 2017; Price and Hongo 2020).

The varied management strategies for pigs were taken by humans, such as keeping them in pens and/or a comparatively free-range manner (Dai and Zhang 2021a, 2021b). The multiple evidences show that the domestic pigs possibly in pens heavily relied on the human leftovers (mainly being the millet-related food consisting of the millet husks, crop residues and others) in the Late Neolithic northern China (Pechenkina et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2021; Yang et al. 2022). Additionally, the extant wild boars, being the non-ruminating omnivores, engage in a flexibly foraging strategy; however, they more prefer to consume the vegetable foods enriched with fiber and energy (Marco 2007; Gimenez-Anaya et al. 2008; Weber and Price 2016). Hence, the dietary habits of wild boars are advantageous for their adaption to the crops-related food also with the enrichment of fiber and energy during the management by humans.

The millet husks had been taken as one staple food for feeding pigs in the Late Neolithic period (Yang et al. 2022). It suggests that the humans had mastered the advanced technology of crops husking possibly by using the ground and flaked stones, since these stone tools were abundantly recovered from the Neolithic archaeological sites in the northern China and widely used to process many kinds of plant seeds (e.g. Yang et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2010, 2011; Yao et al. 2016; Chen 2019). The different parts of millet caryopsis were respectively used to feed humans and pigs, which weakened the competition in food between them, and this further impelled the humans to take full advantage of crops to acquire the economic effect. That is why the diets of pigs and humans were dominated by the millets and/or millet-based food almost at the same time, as the development of millet agriculture in the Yangshao period (Fig. 9, Table S4).

Additionally, the development of pottery industry had advanced the dietary changes in the universally cooking food for humans during the Neolithic period (Sassaman 1993; Yang et al. 2014; Shelach-Lavi and Tu 2017). There is no direct evidence that the humans had specially cooked the food for feeding the domestic pigs, but some leftovers from the human cooking food were generally consumed by the managed pigs (e.g. Pechenkina 2005; Guan et al. 2007; Hu et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2016), and the ethnology investigation shows that the crop husks were simply boiled for feeding pigs in Guanzhong area, northern China. These give a hint that the adaption evolution of domestic pigs and the intensified pig husbandry were also possibly contributed by the food processing. This also provides a new perspective to understanding the pig domestication in the Neolithic China.

In this study, the ages of animal bones from the late Yangshao Culture, Miaodigou II Culture and Keshengzhuang Culture in the Mijiaya site were respectively dated to ca. 3093‒2497 cal. BC, ca. 2272‒1961 cal. BC and ca. 2343‒1980 cal. BC. It provides a direct and advanced evidence for establishing the cultural chronology in this site. The food resources, animal raising strategy and the number, types, colors, textures and functions of potteries in this site also have been preliminarily explored. Integrated with the developments of agricultures and pottery functions in the Neolithic China, it shows a complicating diet (consists of the diversified food resources, varied potteries, involute cooking methods and innovative foodstuffs) had connected humans and its surroundings (e.g. animals, plants, tools, etc.) to co-evolve. This further suggests a social complexity in the Late Neolithic northern China. In addition, it was observed that the most basic principle of the changes in the pottery productions was dominantly contributed by the functional requirements, and this is also generally associated with the stone tools and auxiliary stoves for the complex food processing. Hence, it also provides a new perspective for exploring the efficiency and complexity of food processing and understanding the driving force for human managements in animals and plants during the Neolithic period in northern China.

In this study, the sample size from the Mijiaya site is relatively small, and it was taken as a case study on the coordinated developments in the food, cooking and potteries. In the future, the isotopic analysis of human and more animal bones and the archaeobotanical study in this site will provide the more details for exploring the economy and society in the Late Neolithic China.

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to Yaowu Hu from Department of Cultural Heritage and Museology, Fudan University for providing valuable advice. We also appreciate Bing Yi from Department of History, Xiamen University for the help with producing Figure 1 and Xianglong Chen from Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences for the help with calibrating the ¹⁴C data.

Author Declarations

Funding

This paper is ﬁnancially supported by National Nature Science Foundation of China (grant no. 41701161), the Shaanxi Science and Technology Plan Project (grant no. 2020JQ-416), and the Humanity and Social Science Youth Foundation of Ministry of Education of China (grant no. 15YJCZH132).

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests

The authors have no competing interests as defined by Springer, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper.

Ethics approval/declarations (include appropriate approvals or waivers)

Not applicable

Consent to participate

Not applicable

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and material/ Data availability

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Code availability

Not applicable

Authors' contributions

YQ and JZ wrote the main manuscript text. HY and LZ collected the plant and animal data from the archaeological sites. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Food, Cooking and Potteries: A Preliminary Study on the Social Developments of the Neolithic Mijiaya Site in Guanzhong Area, China

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

Archaeological background

Sample collection

Experimental methods and statistical analysis

Results

AMS ¹⁴C- dating of animal bones from the Mijiaya site

Starch grains and phytoliths extracted from the pottery residues

Discussion

Subsistence strategies and the diversified food resources in the Mijiaya site

Pottery functions and the food processing in the Mijiaya site

Influences of the agricultural development and food processing on the animal feeding practices

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1

Food, Cooking and Potteries: A Preliminary Study on the Social Developments of the Neolithic Mijiaya Site in Guanzhong Area, China

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials And Methods

Archaeological background

Sample collection

Experimental methods and statistical analysis

Results

AMS 14C- dating of animal bones from the Mijiaya site

Starch grains and phytoliths extracted from the pottery residues

Discussion

Subsistence strategies and the diversified food resources in the Mijiaya site

Pottery functions and the food processing in the Mijiaya site

Influences of the agricultural development and food processing on the animal feeding practices

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1

AMS ¹⁴C- dating of animal bones from the Mijiaya site