2.1. Adaptation of urban space to climate change in selected European cities
Many cities, following the guidelines of the European Union's climate and energy policy, are implementing activities related to adapting cities and urban areas to climate change. These activities are based on documents, initiatives, projects, plans developed at various levels of government, or conclusions from climate conferences and conventions and international forums (Geneletti and Zardo 2016). The most important of these include the following: White paper - Adapting to climate change: toward a European framework for action, COM 2009 (White paper 2009), Delivering the European Green Deal (Delivering 2019), New Leipzig Charter (New Leipzig 2020), Territorial Agenda 2030 (Territorial Agenda 2020), EU Adaptation Strategy (EU Adaptation 2021) and many others have set goals and directions for transforming cities, shaping urban space, and building a climate-resilient society. With time, the local planning and strategic documents adopted by cities raised the issue of adaptation to climate change and began to gradually implement it. Currently implemented adaptation activities are increasingly visible in the landscape of European cities, changing their image and improving the quality of life and safety of residents (Pancewicz 2022). Characteristic examples of European cities that are recognized as sources of good practice in strategic planning and adaptation activities that significantly affect architecture are the following: Copenhagen, London, Paris, Barcelona, or Berlin (Fig.1).
The forerunner of many of the city's model climate-change adaptation efforts is Copenhagen. The city government in 2011 enacted its first climate change adaptation plan. Currently, the city has numerous documents that set the city's development policy, guiding Copenhagen toward a sustainable and resilient city. These include, among others, Copenhagen Climate Adaptation Plan (Copenhagen Climate 2011), Copenhagen City Cloudburst Plan (Copenhagen City 2012), Urban Nature in Copenhagen Strategy 2015-2025 (Urban Nature 2015), CPH2025 Climate Plan - A Green, Smart, and Carbon Neutral City (CPH2025 2012), and Copenhagen Solutions for Sustainable Cities (Copenhagen Solutions 2014). Among adaptation activities are those dealing with the issue of water management, both in the context of water scarcity and surplus.
The city has emphasized systemic activities, for example, reconstruction of sewerage systems, use of permeable pavement, and construction of local retention reservoirs (Engberg 2018). Several adaptation activities are introducing blue-green infrastructure solutions into urban spaces and improving transportation. These activities, with the support of educational programs, raise awareness among residents.
In London, the most important local documents on the city's adaptation to climate change include the London Environment Strategy (London Environment 2018), SuDS in London - a guide (SuDS 2016), the Climate Action Strategy 2020-2027 (Climate Action 2020) and The London Plan. The Spatial Development Strategy for Greater London (The London Plan 2021). All the projects presented in these documents focus on ecology and environmental benefits. The main directions of the planned activities emphasize water resource management and zero-emission communication. The city's main problem is the inadequate regulation of rivers, the ponding of rainwater on vast paved areas, and the death of green spaces, so the city has focused primarily on introducing solutions based on natural capital to prevent flooding in the city (Mazur-Belzyt 2021).
Barcelona's 2021 Climate Emergency Action Plan 2030 (Climate Emergency 2021) has set a target of reducing CO2 emissions by 45% and achieving carbon neutrality. Priority tasks include achieving zero energy poverty, maintaining water and energy supplies, and adapting building facilities to climate change. The city is struggling with extreme temperatures, water scarcity, rising sea levels, and shrinking beaches (Villalbi and Ventayol 2016). Adaptation efforts are focused on improving the quality of life of residents, especially those most vulnerable to the effects of climate change. According to the Barcelona green infrastructure and biodiversity plan 2020 (Barcelona green infrastructure 2020) and the Barcelona Nature Plan 2030 (Barcelona Nature Plan 2030, 2021), the city focuses on sustainable management of greenery and water when implementing activities. A special role is played by maintaining the natural elements of the urban structure, introducing new green areas and elements in urban areas, shaping the public space and communication system using the blue-green infrastructure.
Berlin enacted the Adapting to the Impacts of Climate Change in Berlin – AFOK in 2016 (Adapting to the Impact 2016). The city has seen a significant increase in temperature, an increase in annual average precipitation, and the frequency of heavy rains. The occurrence of heat islands is also a problem. Proposals for urban quarter model layouts with protective greenery and shading elements, the use of temporary parking spaces as rainwater storage, and the increase of green spaces that spot reduce ground temperature are prominent among activities to make urban spaces more attractive and adaptable to climate change. Despite the high density and intensity, 44% of the city is green and recreational land, which is why the provisions of the Action Program Berlin Urban Green 2030 developed for the city (Action Program Berlin 2020) link the city's development with greenery development. As a result, the implementation of adaptation activities involves creating links between existing protected areas, protecting and restoring valuable habitats, building new squares and parks in the urban fabric, and introducing solutions based on natural capital (Thierfelder and Kabisch 2016).
Paris, back in 2007, enacted its first climate action plan, thus becoming a pioneering city in the fight against global warming. Updated in 2018, the Paris Climate Action Plan (Paris Climate 2018), focused on carbon offset and the use of renewable energy. The goal of Paris is to achieve carbon neutrality by building urban solar power plants, developing a wastewater energy recovery system, replacing lighting systems and supplementing them with motion sensors and shading structures, and eliminating diesel-powered public transport. Improving quality of life and strengthening the resilience in urban spaces have become an important part of adaptation efforts. The adaptation activities, which were written down in the Paris Resilience Strategy (Paris Resilience 2018) and gradually implemented, have become visible in the city's landscape, mostly through projects related to adapting public spaces to climate change and increasing the proportion of natural areas in the city (Public Green 2015).
The adaptation activities in selected European cities, classified into five spatial scopes, showed in a simplified way the strategic directions of the urban climate change adaptation policy carried out on a local scale (Fig.2).
The spatial and detailed scopes, or the leading types of adaptation activities undertaken in selected European cities specified by the authors of the paper, have become a reference point for research in Polish cities.
2.2. Climate change adaptation activities planned and implemented in Polish cities.
The formation of Poland's climate change-sensitive urban spatial policy began on a large scale in 2013 (Pancewicz 2021). In that year, the Council of Ministers adopted the Strategic Adaptation Plan for Sectors and Areas Vulnerable to Climate Change to 2020 with an Outlook to 2030 developed by the Ministry of Environment. (Polish National 2013), which identifies priority directions for adaptation activities required for implementation in different areas and spatial scales. This document became the basis for a project organized and co-financed by the Ministry of Environment and, implemented in 2017-2019 (Climate change adaptation 2018). The project resulted in the development of UAPs by 44 of the largest Polish cities (Urban Adaptation 2019). The team developing these documents aimed to reduce or mitigating the effects of the most serious climate change risks that affect vulnerable urban areas. The organizational, technical, and informational-educational activities planned in the documents, with an implementation period until 2030, cities are gradually implementing in urban spaces. At present, more than 1150 activities have been implemented in the Polish territory (Seminar papers 2022), a significant part of which are those resulting from the UAP implementation. This number will increase when more Polish cities with a population above 20,000 will be obliged, according to the Draft Law on Amendments to Certain Laws to Strengthen the Climate Dimension of Urban Policy of 2021 (Draft law 2021), to develop the UAPs.
Local authorities address planned and implemented adaptation activities to specific urban areas. In this way, they reflect the actual problems and needs of a given city. Their essence is diversity, complementarity and interdependence, resulting in increased resilience to the city. In the research undertaken, the authors focused exclusively on spatial activities that allow for short-term effects noticeable in urban spaces. These activities, in addition to strengthening the resilience of the city, affect the shape of urban structure, urban development, public spaces, green areas and infrastructure.
2.3. The main directions of adaptation activities
Among the planned and implemented adaptation activities studied, the authors identified five scopes concerning: sustainable urban development, water resource management, green space management and transportation infrastructure, as well as microscale activities, or so-called urban acupuncture (Seminar papers 2022).
Within the framework of a study of sustainable water resource management, the authors considered
activities related to river restoration and regulation, revitalization of waterside areas, large- and small-scale retention, infrastructure, and flood protection. An analysis of the spatial distribution of this group of activities in individual cities highlighted their concentration near major watercourses and reservoirs. Among cities with UAPs, 231 actions were planned from the above scope were planned, while 248 were implemented. A significant predominance of planned actions can be observed in the field of large and small retention (73). The predominant number of activities implemented is related to the revitalization of rivers, reservoirs, and waterside areas (53). The cities that stand out in terms of the number of sustainable water resource management activities are Rzeszow (6 planned and 24 implemented) and Katowice (15 planned and 14 implemented) (Seminar papers 2022).
Studies of sustainable management of green areas included revitalization of landscaped green areas, introduction/development of new green areas / recreation areas, revitalization of degraded areas into natural areas and protection of valuable natural areas/floodplains. The analysis shows that adaptation activities in this area are mainly located in urban centers, as well as near reservoirs and watercourses, and forest and park areas. In this regard, 209 activities were planned and 249 were implemented. The overwhelming number of planned activities (84) introduce or develop new green and recreational areas. The largest number of projects (94) are implemented in the field of green and the revitalization of landscaped areas. In terms of the number of activities, one can distinguish Szczecin (13 planned and 9 implemented), Rzeszów (12 planned and 6 implemented), Sosnowiec (3 planned and 15 implemented) and Sopot (3 planned and 15 implemented) (Seminar papers 2022).
The communication infrastructure activities that the authors examined in the context of introducing new forms of mobility, infrastructural system activities, revitalizing post-communication areas, adapting public transportation, bicycle, and pedestrian infrastructure, are mainly accumulated in the city centers, where participation and access to transportation are much greater than in the suburbs. The scope refers to 236 planned and 199 implemented activities. Among them, planned activities in the field of infrastructure system and matching of public transportation (93) and activities related to bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure (68) were dominated. The city that stands out from others in terms of the implementation and planning of activities in the field of transportation infrastructure is Wroclaw (12 planned and 14 implemented) (Seminar papers 2022).
Adaptation activities in the field of sustainable urban development, such as revitalization of degraded areas and facilities, development of public spaces, adaptation of building structures to climate change, unsealing of paved surfaces and systemic activities related to the ventilation system of urban spaces, covered mainly the city centers. In the cities analyzed, 220 adaptation activities were planned and 191 were implemented. Among the planned activities, the revitalization of the areas / objects degraded was the dominant factor (85). The implemented activities were dominated by the adaptation of the building facilities to climate change (75). The leading cities in terms of the number of actions are: Gorzów Wielkopolski (21 planned and 3 implemented) and Gdynia (8 planned and 12 implemented) (Seminar papers 2022).
The activities analysed in the field of microintervention/ urban acupuncture introduce pocket parks, rain gardens, community gardens, green walls, rooftops, streets/woonerfs, courtyards into urban space, as in other scopes, are mostly concentrated in city centres. The analyzes show that 137 activities have been planned since 2014, while 281 have been implemented, with pocket parks being the most popular activity in cities (38 activities planned and 55 implemented). The largest number of activities in the above range can be attributed to Lodz (2 planned and 43 implemented). Subsequent cities perform at least twice as well (Seminar papers 2022).