Socio-Economic Impacts of FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: A Study in Chon Buri Sports City Residents

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2372928/v1

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Socio-Economic Impacts of FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: A Study in Chon Buri Sports City Residents

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2372928/v1

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Hosting FIFA World Cup obviously produce immense socio-economic impacts to a nation. Proximal non-host city perception to mega event was frequently explored, while distal non-host city perception has less investigated. This study assessed the socio-economic impacts of FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022 in Chon Buri Sports City residents. Participants were 422 Chon Buri Sports City residents from eleven districts. Perception on socio-economic impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 was measured from the translated Scale of Perceived Social Impacts. Extracted seven dimensions by confirmatory factor analysis is consistent with empirical data. Positive impact dimensions are Community Development, Community Pride, Economic Benefits. Negative impact dimensions are Traffic Problems, Security Risks, Economic Costs, and Environmental Concerns. Chon Buri Sports City residents perceived fewer negative impacts than other non-host city residents. Positive impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 has more influenced on Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception than negative impacts. These findings advantage for sport stakeholders to deeper understand the impacts of mega event hosting.

Management

FIFA

World Cup

Socio-economic impacts

Non-host city resident

Chon Buri

FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football Association) is a global football organization, exist to govern football and to develop the games around the world (FIFA, 2022). It was founded in Paris on 21 May 1904, signed by 7 representatives from France, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. The FIFA membership broadened to a greater extent with the application of South Africa in 1909, Argentina in 1912, and the United States in 1913. Each of the members of FIFA has one vote in the FIFA Congress for electing the host country of FIFA World Cup (FWC). The first FWC had hosted by Uruguay in 1930 and later 17 countries have been FWC hosted in the competition’s twenty-one tournaments every four years after World War II (Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022). The recent twenty-two FWC are hosting by Qatar this year.

Hosting FWC obviously produce immense socio-economic impact to a nation. It has a positive return at long-term yield or legacy when comparing on the vast investment, especially infrastructural construction. South Africa allotted to stadia construction and renovation as well as transportation over 74% of USD 2.3 billion. After that, they gain a lot of recognition and exposure among the world population after hosted FWC in 2010. Many tourists and visitors shared their views and thoughts of the on the ground situation that prevailed in the rural part of South Africa with in turn motivated many NGOs and organization to serve the people of South Africa benefiting those in real need. Furthermore, FWC South Africa generated revenue for FIFA of around ZAR 29 billion, which had increased 2% from the 2006 Germany FWC (Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022). In 2018, Russia had spent USD 10 billion for hosting FWC. The cumulative effect on Russia’s economy between 2013 and 2018 amounts to USD 13 billion, representing roughly 1% annual GDP. The research committee of the organizing team forecasted that by 2023, the economic impacts through various sectors could be reach USD 30.8 billion. The payback amounted to thrice the initial fund and comprised of different sectors of the nation within five years (Müller, 2015). For FWC Qatar 2022, about USD 31.4 billion alone is being spent on creating a new city. Lusail in which Lusail Stadium is planned to host the open and final match. Khalifa International Stadium was significantly renovated while another 6 stadiums are also built for hosting 64 matches of the FWC. About USD 11.5 billion alone is being spent in all sort of transportation segments which includes public transport, road/bridges construction, Metro-rail, Hamad International Airport expansion, and seaports (Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022). However, recognition of socio-economic impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 need further empirical evidences.

Socio-economic impacts of being the FWC host probably similar to sport events that it as a media for urban regeneration and development (Perić, 2018), as a results in new business opportunities and employment for the host and non-host city residents. Example the impacts for host city residents, during FWC Russia 2018, approximately 315,000 jobs were created and managed by the government in order to prepare and organize the mega event and the unemployment rate was decreased from 5.8% to 4.8%, its lowest rate in 20 years (Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022). Non-host city residents also were attracted as visitor who will stay and spend more money before, during, and after a venue, as well as visitors who will enter certain business ventures, are key assumptions for generating economic benefits (Perić, 2018). It is argued that non-host city residents are sometimes in a favorable position to benefit from events when compared to host residents because there is no initial investment and they can devote all resources to leveraging (Chien, Kelly, & Chelsea, 2017). Although previous studies have focused on non-host city residents’ perceptions to sport event impacts on their communities and countries such as 2002 Winter Olympics (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002), 2008 Beijing Olympic Games (Liu, Broom, & Wilson, 2014), 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games (Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012), 2012 London Olympic Games (Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009), 2018 Gold Coast Commonwealth Games (Lovegrove & Fairley, 2017), and 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games (Chien, Kelly, & Chelsea, 2017), the impacts of FWC has very limit explore among non-host city residents.

In spite the fact that understanding the socio-economic impacts of FWC Qatar 2022 on non-host city residents are also crucial as host city residents. Non-host city residents are sometimes in a favorable position to benefit from events when compared to host city residents because there is no initial investment and they can devote all resources to leveraging (Fairley, Cardillo, & Filo, 2016; Chien, Kelly, & Chelsea, 2017; Perić, 2018). Moreover, government investment will be deeply justified from foreign consumption such as broadcast license, ticket, travel, tourism, accommodation, souvenir, and food and beverage during the broadcasting. The level of support or opposition will assist FWC or related mega event policy making and revealed the ways to improve event outcomes for event stakeholders and the local host community. However, while Thai sports industry clusters were adopted digital marketing on Facebook fanpage during 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games (Chankuna & Amphai, 2021), or Impact of COVID-19 on sport industry in Thailand were mentioned (Chankuna, Chanthonsarasom, Inchana, Sukdee, & Sriboon, 2021), but socio-economic impacts on non-host city residents still under-researched area. Therefore, one way in which contribute a new understanding the socio-economic impacts of FWC Qatar 2022 is evaluate how non-host city residents perceive the consequences of hosting FWC Qatar 2022.

The aim of this study is to develop a deeper understanding of the socio-economical dimension of FWC Qatar 2022, by exploring non-host city resident perceptions in Thailand. Emphasis on Sports City, Chon Buri residents was the first sample of farthest study site. Furthermore, they attained social benefits from Sports City (Chankuna & Khositdham, 2020) in which Economic development could be leverage during the FWC Qatar 2022. The research question is that how was Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception from FWC Qatar 2022 hosting. Finally, the research answers will help sports policy maker to making decision regarding to develop that community.

Three dimensions of related literatures had reviewed to explained the research question. Previous socio-economic impacts of FWCs, resident perceptions to mega event, and Chon Buri Sports City context were clarified as follows.

Previous Socio-Economic Impacts of FWCs

Last three FWC hosted by South Africa, Brazil, and Russia broaden leverages the nation. The nineteen FWC was effectively hosted by South Africa in 2010, making it the country's most successful FIFA event to date. Around ZAR 29 billion in revenue from the World Cup was generated for FIFA, an increase of 2% over the FIFA held in Germany in 2006. While FIFA kept the majority of the event's earnings, South Africa also got a sizable injection. The sports industry generated more over ZAR 10 billion in direct revenue from ticket sales, broadcast rights, sponsorship agreements, and marketing. The aforementioned sum did not account for television advertisements, other tournament-related media, or the non-sports money generated by foreign visitors. International visitors to South Africa spent almost ZAR 11 billion overall during the major event. The 2010 event served as a spur for infrastructure initiatives, which helped the provinces where it was hosted. Additionally, the authorities favored placing foreign visitors and spectators in convenient locations with less crimes. As a result, the communities who sponsored the event benefited greatly. The other regions were consequently left without infrastructural developments even though the cost of hosting was covered by all South African taxpayers. However, the country as a whole benefited economically from hosting the world cup (Swart, Moyo, & Hattingh, 2019; Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

An estimated 130,000 direct jobs in the construction industry were created as a result of the 1,100 and 1,300 US million dollars invested on stadium-related expenses and transportation. The massive stadium setup required expensive maintenance. Few stadiums' uses were not justified by the costs incurred in maintaining them. As a result, they had varying degrees of success after the incident. As a result, even though the stadium infrastructure required a significant investment, the return on investment was low, and the stadiums eventually turned into government white elephants due to the high operating costs (Swart, Moyo, & Hattingh, 2019; Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

The South African government anticipated that the tourism industry would grow. 825,000 direct jobs and 575,000 indirect jobs were produced by the tourism industry, respectively. In 2009, the tourist industry's GDP was 8.7%. 450,000 tourists were projected to be in attendance, according to ex ante study of economic and financial factors. Ex-post analysis showed that only 68% of the rate was achieved. However, according to government estimates, only a tenth of the money spent on the 2010 event was recouped, with visitors spending an additional 247 US dollars, 24% more than they had in previous years on food, housing, and shopping. A total of USD 135 million was spent on the creation of 40,000 permanent posts in the police department as part of the safety and security sector (Swart, Moyo, & Hattingh, 2019; Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

Like South Africa, major event management helps emerging nations gain knowledge of the planning and management of events. Brazil's economy was booming when it was chosen to host in 2007. According to data from the International Monetary Fund, GDP increased by 6.1% while inflation was around 3.6%. The nation's economy was harmed by the 2008 financial crisis. As a result, both inflation and government spending increased. Infrastructure improvements and stadium upgrades came in over budget. For instance, it was initially anticipated that the 2010 repair and eventual reconstruction of Brasilia's Estadio Nacional Mane Garrincha would cost USD 300 million. Government auditors, however, raised the estimate to USD 900 million, making the stadium the second-most expensive football stadium in the world and the most expensive in Brazil. Another example is Sao Paulo's Morumbi Stadium, a stadium that was already in use. The group suggested that a new stadium be constructed in Sao Paulo rather than having it renovated. Itaquerao, a recently constructed stadium, cost the Brazilian government and taxpayers a tremendous amount of money, placing an unwarranted burden on the nation's economy (Bondarik, Pilatti, & Horst, 2021; Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

Interestingly, FIFA reported that Brazil had spent USD 15 billion in June 2014. The Federal Court of Brazil Accounts (TCU) later reported that USD 9.63 billion was spent on the incident. 3.02, 2.64, and 2.34 US billions were spent on stadiums, urban transportation, and airports, respectively.

According to FIFA, a host nation typically needs to offer 10 or twelve stadiums. Twelve stadiums were planned by the Brazilian government for various towns. Since the stadiums were spread out, they could not be maintained after the competition. For instance, the stadium known as Arena Amazonia cost USD 300 million to construct but was abandoned since it was hundreds of miles from populated regions. The most expensive stadium currently to build, Estadio Nacional in Brasilia, serves as a bus parking lot.

Ten months after the event, work on the Corinthians Arena stadium in Sao Paulo was finished. More than 6.4 million tourists were counted by the Brazilian Ministry of Tourism in 2014. For instance, Rio received 1,597,153 visitors, up 32.2% from the previous year. Predicted hotel room occupancy increased by 45%. However, only 2.5% of the government's USD 15 billion investment was made up of tourist income (Bondarik, Pilatti, & Horst, 2021; Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

In 2018, Russia broke Brazil’s record and spent 11,954 US dollars. Estimations stated that by 2024, the nation will amortize this investment. Russia experienced the quick development of poor districts as a typical benefit of holding mega-events. Between 2013 and 2018, the 2018 FIFA World Cup had an overall economic impact on Russia totaling USD 13 billion, or nearly 1% of GDP (FIFA, 2017; Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

The tourism industry saw a noticeable improvement as visitors from around the world spent 670 million dollars (about 1,170 dollars per person). Few areas of the country received their annual total of visits in less than 30 days. Despite other factors, the impact of tourism was felt by Russia's media projection even a few years before the end of the world cup (FIFA, 2017; Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

In order to prepare for and organize the massive event, the government created and managed some 315,000 jobs, which resulted in a drop in the unemployment rate from 5.8% to 4.8%—the lowest figure in 20 years. For the years 2013 to 2018, more tax revenue of almost USD 2.3 billion was added to the national and local budgets. Each host region's economy had a 2-20% increase in annual Gross Rating Point as a result of the big event. The Russian government estimated in 2018 that the country's GDP will increase by USD 2.1-3 billion during the following five years (FIFA, 2017; Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

Any significant increase in inflation could "eat up" the nation's economic growth. However, in the case of Russia, foreign exchange influx raised the price rates. The country achieved western economic standards thanks to historically low inflation rates, which fell from 16.9% in 2015 to 2.4% in 2018. In comparison to the 2014 World Cup, the impact of GDP growth on economic activities was three times greater thanks to a twofold increase in adoring visitors and tourists during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa (FIFA, 2017; Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022).

Previous socio-economic impacts of three FWCs suggests that nation development and GDP were acceptable indicator of socio-economic impacts. Stadium and infrastructure were major expenditure of the event, while revenues were tourism activity and broadcast rights. FWC hosting was directly leveraged the host community. Each government has increasing investment to organized the event followed the FIFA requirements and induced euphoria, pride, and patriotism of the resident.

Resident Perceptions to Mega Event

As previous socio-economic impacts of FWCs, it is frequently hypothesized that community support for an event from locals is essential to its success (Fredline, 2005; Gursoy & Kendall, 2006). Residents may be required to vote on and/or pay taxes that go toward financing the event's infrastructure and enhancements (Preuss & Solberg, 2006). Additionally, events aim to enlist and keep a sizable number of locals as volunteers (Cuskelly, Hoye, & Auld, 2006). A growing amount of literature investigates how residents feel about hosting events (Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012; Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009). However, Waitt (2003) highlights that resident constantly reevaluate their perception to the event within the social setting and thus their perceptions are not static. Furthermore, Ritchie and colleagues (2009) have confirmed this through publishing multiple articles from a longitudinal study on perceptions of the 2012 London Olympics, which tracks changes in resident perceptions over time (Chien, Ritchie, Shipway, & Henderson, 2011). Hence, being aware of resident perceptions can allow event managers to develop strategies to alleviate potential negative impacts.

Social exchange theory has been used as a suitable theoretical foundation to comprehend residents' perspectives (Ap, 1992; Liu, Broom, & Wilson, 2014; Peri, 2018). According to the social exchange theory, people are more likely to share goods or services with others if they think they will benefit in return without incurring unbearable costs (Gursoy & Kendall, 2006). The ability of social exchange theory to explain positive and negative attitudes and examine exchanges at the individual or community level is one of its benefits (Ap, 1992). In interactions between host residents and tourists, resident attitudes are utilized to forecast behavior. The usage of sport tourism resources created as a result of the event and resource sharing between locals and visitors is implied as part of the sport tourism exchanges that take place (Fredline, 2005). The results of an internal cost-benefit analysis will be used by residents to evaluate the costs and benefits of these exchanges and determine their overall perception (Fredline, 2005). Residents will act in a helpful manner and have a good attitude about holding future events if they believe that the advantages of having an event exceed the costs (Fredline, 2005). The ability of social exchange theory to explain positive and negative attitudes and examine exchanges at the individual or group level, in essence, is its main advantage and, in fact, importance (Ap, 1992). However, if the residents have a negative experience, a negative attitude will develop and there won't be as much support.

The majority of research on resident perceptions has, however, typically focused on those living in the host city (Ritchie & Smith, 1991). Nevertheless, a few studies have started to look at how people from non-host cities see things (Deccio & Bagloglu, 2002; Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012; Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009). According to previous researches, a resident's impressions may vary based on how close they are to the occurrence (Cegielski & Mules, 2002; Ritchie & Inkari, 2006; Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009). For example, Ritchie and his colleague (2009) found that those who lived closer to the actual event venues were less supportive of the event than those who lived further away, perhaps because of the perceived disruption to their quality of life during event time. Similarly, Cegielski and Mules (2002) suggest that those who lived further away had more positive perceptions to the impact of the events than those who lived closer.

Moreover, Deccio and Baloglu (2002) examined the perceptions of individuals who lived 250 miles away in Garfield County, Utah towards the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City. Drawing on social exchange theory, they examined resident’ perceptions to the spillover effects of the event. They found that while some residents believed that their local community would benefit from the Games, most did not. In London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games, Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve (2009) conducted research in the cities of Weymouth and Portland in England. Although these cities are technically outside of the central Games district of London, and thus allow the authors to claim non-host city status, the two cities did in fact host the Sailing and Windsurfing events during the Games. They found residents had high levels of support for hosting the sailing events in the city before the event.

Interestingly, Karadakis and Kaplanidou (2012) looked at how citizens of Vancouver, the host city, and Ottawa, a non-host city, felt about the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. According to social exchange theory, they discovered that non-host community inhabitants marginally preferred the economic, tourism, environmental, and knowledge development legacy benefits to those of the host community. As the host town was more likely to experience the event's direct repercussions, they hypothesized that this effect could be explained by locals there being more aware of the detrimental effects of tourism.

In longitudinal study, Liu, Broom, & Wilson (2014) analyzed how non-host city residents evaluated the legacy of the 2008 Beijing Olympics and how that attitude would affect the hosting nearly five years after the Games. Data were gathered from 468 residents of Shanghai via structured questionnaires, according to social exchange theory, as part of an empirical survey study. Seven components were found via exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to underlie the perception to the Beijing Olympics' legacy in seven different categories named ‘Psychic income and social capital’, ‘Infrastructure and skills development’, ‘Networks and cooperation’, ‘Environment’, ‘Tourism and economics’, ‘Sport and health’ and ‘Identity and culture’. The results showed that the perceived legacy level was significantly higher than the midpoint on each dimension. The study also underlined the significance of continuing to harness the legacy of the Olympics by confirming that locals' attitudes regarding holding the Olympics will be positively influenced by perceived legacy.

For Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, Chien, Kelly, & Chelsea (2017) investigated leverage of mega-events from the viewpoint of a non-host city and presents a useful exploratory case study of Kobe in relation to potential related to the approaching Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. A non-host city's ability to exploit the mega-event to improve destination brand equity through event media. From the standpoint of long-term leveraging, non-host cities could work to create a compelling, distinctive, and positive destination brand in order to grab media attention, maintain visitor interest, entice international sports teams, and draw commerce and financial investment.

In case of before the event analysis, Fairley, Cardillo, & Filo (2016) explored host city residents' perception to the 2018 Commonwealth Games, which will be held somewhere else in the state, in a remote community (in this case, Townsville) (i.e., The Gold Coast). The opinions of residents of non-host cities about the event and the possibility of volunteering there were investigated four years before to the event. They discovered that there is rivalry between the host community and the non-host community as well as a lack of perceived benefits for the non-host region. Additionally, residents of non-host cities' perspectives about volunteering at the event included: travel restrictions, a lack of awareness, volunteer packages, national pride, once-in-a-lifetime experience, and meeting new foreigners.

Recently, Perić (2018) assessed the socio-economic impacts of hosting the 13th EHF (European Handball Federation) European Handball Championship in Croatia. Positive and negative perception of host- and non-host city residents was examined through the Scale of Perceived Social Impacts (SPSI), which derived from social exchange theory. The results suggest that Community development and pride, Security risks, Traffic problems, Economic benefits, Environmental concerns, and Economic costs are the main impact dimensions. Non-host city residents expressed a higher level of agreement with most of the impacts, but significant differences exist primarily within the dimensions of Community development and pride, Economic benefits, Traffic problems, and Environmental concerns.

In conclusion, social exchange theory has commonly served as the basis for understanding residents’ perceptions to an event. Previous researches have noted differences in perceptions between host city and non-host city residents based on the proximity of the city to the event. To date, few studies examining the perspectives of non-host city residents especially hosting FWC. Residents who lived further away (and aboard) from the host city trend to more supportive of the event than those who lived closer to the venue, presumably because host city residents experienced negative impacts, such as disruption to their lives associated with increased congestion. Furthermore, it is important to comprehend the perspectives of residents in nonhost communities and look at strategies that can involve these non-host residents in the event as event organizers and state departments are urged to increase the flow of benefits to other regions of the state and country outside of the host city.

Chon Buri Sports City Context

Chon Buri is an eastern province of Thailand. It located southeast of Bangkok, on the Gulf of Thailand. Chon Buri has provincial and local governments. Provincial government consists of 11 districts, while local government are overseen by the Pattaya City Special Local Government in Pattaya and the Chonburi Provincial Administrative Organisation. Chon Buri was accredited as Sports City by Ministry of Tourism and Sports, together with Suphanburi, Buriram, Udonthani, Sisaket and Krabi, follows the 6th National Sports Development Plan since 2018. The Commissioner of The National Reform Steering Assembly in sports, arts, cultures, religion and ethics adopt three dimensions had emerged from Western nations; Sport for Life (Manchester and Singapore), Sport for Excellence (Tokyo) and Sports Industry (In conjunction with Sports Tourism) (Singapore and Dubai) for improving national sports. Sports City represented province or area which has sports improvement and sports event organization readiness for a benefit, health and quality of life of the population, elite establishment, sports knowledge development, training and sports organizing including economical value-added of the nation by government and society participation supporting (Chankuna & Khositdham, 2020).

In 2019, Ministry of Tourism and Sports developed concept of Sports City accreditation. 10 provinces were accredited as Sports City according to 4 dimensions. Sport for health and exercise has 3 accredited provinces - Bangkok, Chantaburi, and Yala. Sports tourism and sports culture has 3 accredited provinces - Chiang Rai, Patthalung, and Phuket. Sports for excellence has 3 accredited provinces - Nakhon Ratchasima, Songkhla, and Trang. Only Ubon Ratchathani was accredited as Sports City in terms of Basic sports and sports for all (Manager Online, 2019). Until now, Chon Buri and another 15 provinces have been accrediting as Sports City in Thailand.

Nevertheless, few research exist that determined the impact of Chon Buri Sport City accreditation. In 2020, Chon Buri resident perception to Sport City were explored through the social benefit of sport city (SBSC) model (Chankuna & Khositdham, 2020). Multi-stage random sampling was used to qualified 383 participants for answering the 25 items self-administration questionnaires. Extracted 5 factors were confirmed the perception on SBSC model. The highest loading factors were Education and employment (0.903) followed by Community physical and mental health (0.894), Community development, social capital, and active citizenship (0.893) respectively. The least two factors were Crime reduction and community safety and Economic development and sustainability (0.890). The findings imply that Chon Buri resident prioritizes education and work as important SBSC dimensions. Economic development, in term of sports organizing including economical value-added of the nation by government and society participation supporting, could be leverage during the FWC Qatar 2022.

Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to hosting FWC Qatar 2022 is the first example for non-host city perception to mega event. 5,357 kilometers away for Qatar is farthest distance of the study site for measuring the perception which help every sport business stakeholder to deeper understand the widespread impact of hosting the FWC. Furthermore, Scale of Perceived Social Impacts (SPSI) Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane (2015) never employed in Chon Buri Sports City residents. Positive and negative social impact dimensions are still waiting to clarified for decision making of policy makers regarding to Sports City accreditation.

This study employed only quantitative research design for understanding of the socio-economical dimension of FWC Qatar 2022 from Chon Buri Sports City residents. Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting was measures from the translated Scale of Perceived Social Impacts (SPSI) which was developed by Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane (2015). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to verity the consistency of items for FWC Qatar 2022 non-host city residents’ perception with empirical data. This study was verified for exemption by research ethical committees of Thailand National Sports University before starting the research. In addition, the author declares that there are no competing interests.

Participant Recruitment

1.3 million Chonburi population (National Statistics Office, 2019) were sampling with multi-stage random sampling techniques based on the expectation of using the CFA role of thumb. A ratio of samples to questionnaire items is 15:1 (Kline, 2016). With 27 items of the questionnaire, the sample is 405. However, to prevent data losing, 445 samples were determined. Quota sampling from population in 11 districts was firstly applied. Highest calculated sample group is 100 in Mueang Chon Buri followed by 86 in Bang Lamung, 79 in Sri Racha, 51 in Sattahip, 40 in Phanat Nikhom, 33 in Ban Bueng, 18 in Pan Thong, 16 in Bo Thong, 12 in Ko Chan, 8 in Nong Yai, and the lowest is 2 in Koh Srichang.

The researchers trained two assistant researchers for data collecting process. The data colleting process had designed to guaranteed a valid data in convenience sampling method from the sample. Two well-trained assistant researchers collected the data during the Group stage matches of FWC Qatar 2022 competition, 20 November to 3 December, 2022. Major data collection site was 11 district offices. There were three inclusion criteria of this study. Participants should be Thai, over 18 years old, and walked through the data collection site. If participants refusion and out of Chon Buri residence, they were excluded from the study. The excluded participants were found in three districts in total of 23. Responded sample in Mueang Chon Buri, Sri Racha, and Sattahip are 94, 68, and 45 respectively. As result, 422 questionnaires were completely responded. The respond rate is high at 93.78%.

Questionnaire Development

The SPSI questionnaire was developed by Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane (2015). According to social exchange theory, the purpose of the SPSI questionnaire is to measure the non-host city residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting. The questionnaire comprised of two parts. First part, seven dimensions, both positive and negative impacts, in total of 27 items were self-administered by the samples. The positive impact variable consists of three dimensions with 13 items as follows; Community development at 5 items, Community pride at 4 items, and Economic benefits at 4 items. The negative impact variable consists of four dimensions with 14 items as follows; Traffic problems at 3 items, Security risk at 4 items, Economic costs at 3 items, and Environmental concerns at 4 items. The items on socio-economic impacts were operationalized with seven-point direct rating scales, ranging from 1-Strongly disagree to 7-Strongly agree.

The second part of the questionnaire captured profile of the participants including gender, age, education, and occupation. All questionnaires were paper-based. Furthermore, the questionnaire was in Thai, but it was translated using forward-backward translation by same translator for publication purpose.

The questionnaire was verified content validity and reliability. Content validity was tested through items objective congruence index (IOC) by three experts with three qualification criteria; hold doctoral degree in sport management or related field, has up to five years experienced in socio-economic impacts study and distinguishable understands the socio-economic impacts framework. The IOC is 0.95. Reliability was acquired from Cronbach’s Alpha by try out in 33 Bangkok residents before data collection. The Cronbach’s Alpha is at 0.877. Slight modifications to the First part of the questionnaire’s items were made under the experts’ recommendation and the context of this study.

Data Analysis

Data collected were descriptively analyzed to explore the resident profile of the study and to calculate the means and standard deviation. Demographics of the sample were grouping analyzed (nominal and ordinal scales). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was undertaken by Mplus 5.21. The 7 first-order factors were extracted using the fix factor method to confirm the 27 SPSI measure scales regarding to Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane (2015). Cut-off criteria for fit indices had recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999) were adopted. The fit indices are Relative χ² (Chi-Square/df), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Model respecifications were required for adjusting the unacceptable fit indices.

Table 1 presents the participants’ profile. Chon Buri Sports City residents were enrolled from 11 districts in Chon Buri as previously mentioned. Most of the participants lived in Mueang Chon Buri at 22.3%, followed by Bang Lamung and Sri Racha at 20.4% and 16.1% respectively. Gender of the participants was male at 258 (61.1%) and female at 164 (38.9%). Highest age range were 18-25 years (42.7%), below 18 years and 26-35 years (10.4%), and over 65 years (10.0%). Bachelor and master degrees were most frequency of the participants (37.0% and 23.7%). Top three occupations were private staff, entrepreneur, and state enterprise (23.0%, 19.0%, and 15.2%).

Table 2 describes the level of Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting. Participants expressed more agreement with positive socio-economic impacts (Mean = 5.38) than negative impact (Mean = 3.21). For positive socio-economic impacts, Community Development are highest perceived level than Economic Benefit and Community Pride (Mean = 5.63, 5.26, and 5.25 respectively). It seems that FWC Qatar 2022 significantly ‘Improved the image of hosting cities’ in Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception. In contrast, hosting FWC Qatar 2022 almost has less negative socio-economic impacted to non-host city residents’ perception. Traffic Problems, Security Risks, and Environment Concerns are less perceived by the participants (Mean = 3.17, 2.31, 2.13 respectively). Economic Costs was obviously perceived by participants (Mean = 5.22) among negative impact. FWC Qatar 2022 hosting probably convince Chon Buri Sports City residents’ that there are Excessive spending on new infrastructure for the event (Mean = 5.89) and Excessive spending for preparing the sport halls (Mean = 5.83).

Table 3 confirms that fit indices of the Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions model provided a good fit (Relative χ² = 1.262, RMSEA = 0.025; CFI = 0.976; TLI = 0.972; SRMR = 0.043). Through several steps, all of the measurement scales were coded to expect positive factor loadings. The original measurement model (with all factors set to correlate) was estimated and all scales loaded onto their respective factor and were all significant. The R² values indicated that six observed variables did not contribute adequately to uniquely explaining the variance of their respective latent factors. ‘Provided an incentive for the preservation of the local culture’, ‘Reinforced community spirit’, ‘Resulted in traffic congestion’, ‘Increased disturbance from visitors (e.g., drunkenness, hooliganism, disorder, and vandalism)’, ‘Local residents were not a primary consideration for the event’, and ‘Urban development will be negatively affected long-term’ had poor performance (R² between 0.133 and 0.398). However, poor performance scales were kept for subsequent analyses to measure the consistency of items for FWC Qatar 2022 non-host city residents’ perception. Furthermore, examination of the standardized residuals covariance matrix revealed no significant discrepancy between the sample and the implied covariances matrices. There was no multicollinearity problem in this study. Thus, the model of Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions is consistent with empirical data.

Table 1 Profile of Chon Buri Sports City residents’ (n = 422).

Profile	n	%
Districts
1. Mueang Chon Buri	94	22.3
2. Bang Lamung	86	20.4
3. Sri Racha	68	16.1
4. Sattahip	45	10.7
5. Phanat Nikhom	40	9.5
6. Ban Bueng	33	7.8
7. Pan Thong	18	4.3
8. Bo Thong	16	3.8
9. Ko Chan	12	2.8
10. Nong Yai	8	1.9
11. Koh Srichang	2	0.5
Gender
Male	258	61.1
Female	164	38.9
Age
Below 18 years	44	10.4
18-25 years	180	42.7
26-35 years	44	10.4
36-45 years	36	8.5
46-55 years	40	9.5
56-65 years	36	8.5
Over 65 years	42	10.0
Education
Under bachelor	84	19.9
Bachelor	156	37.0
Master	100	23.7
Doctoral	82	19.4
Occupation
Official	60	14.2
State enterprise	64	15.2
Government staff	62	14.7
Private staff	97	23.0
Entrepreneur	80	19.0
Employee	59	14.0
Total	422	100.0

Table 2 Mean values and standard deviation for Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting (n = 422).

Variable	Mean	SD
(+) Positive social impact variable 1. Community Development	5.38 5.63	0.138 0.252
1) Increased the understanding of the other cultures and societies of visitors (CD1)	5.61	1.206
2) Increased interest in international sport events (CD2)	5.26	1.316
3) Increased opportunity to inform hosting community in the World (CD3)	5.64	1.219
4) Enhanced media visibility (CD4)	5.60	1.209
5) Improved the image of hosting cities (CD5)	6.05	1.208
2. Community Pride	5.25	0.585
1) Enhanced the community pride of local residents (CP1)	6.03	1.247
2) Enhanced the sense of being a part of community (CP2)	5.59	1.221
3) Provided an incentive for the preservation of the local culture (CP3)	4.64	1.386
4) Reinforced community spirit (CP4)	4.73	1.415
3. Economic Benefits	5.26	0.467
1) Increased trade for local business (EB1)	5.99	1.213
2) Improved economic conditions in hosting cities (EB2)	4.70	1.405
3) Increased leisure facilities in hosting cities (EB3)	5.10	1.234
4) Increased community development investments (EB4)	5.27	1.323
(-) Negative social impact variable 4. Traffic Problems	3.21 3.17	0.337 0.340
1) Increased road closures/disruption (TP1)	2.92	1.405
2) Resulted in traffic congestion (TP2)	2.94	0.910
3) Increased hardship for finding parking spaces (TP3)	3.65	1.080
5. Security Risks	2.31	0.137
1) Increased risk of terrorism (e.g., bomb threat, etc.) (SR1)	2.26	1.132
2) Attracted interests of terrorists for future events (SR2)	2.55	1.224
3) Increased risk of cyber-attack (SR3)	2.25	1.091
4) Increased disturbance from visitors (e.g., drunkenness, hooliganism, disorder, and vandalism) (SR4)	2.19	1.080
6. Economic Costs	5.22	0.905
1) Excessive spending on new infrastructure for the event (EC1)	5.89	1.099
2) Excessive spending for preparing the sport halls (EC2)	5.83	1.081
3) Local residents were not a primary consideration for the event (EC3)	3.94	1.912
7. Environmental Concerns	2.13	0.034
1) Increased the amount of litter and waste (EN1)	2.16	1.065
2) Increased air pollution (EN2)	2.16	1.074
3) Increased noise levels (EN3)	2.10	1.084
4) Urban development will be negatively affected long-term (EN4)	2.09	1.101

Table 3 Fit indices analysis for Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting (n = 422).

Fit Indices	Cut-off Value	CFA Finding	Interpretation
Relative χ²	< 2.00	1.262 (382.453/303)	Good fit
RMSEA	< .06 (or .05)	0.025	Good fit
CFI	> .95	0.976	Good fit
TLI	> .95	0.972	Good fit
SRMR	< .08 (or .10)	0.043	Good fit

Table 4 Parameter values for Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting (n = 422).

Dimension	Standardized Factor Loading	t	S.E.	R²
1. Community Development	0.954	18.898*	0.050	0.829
2. Community Pride	0.928	17.871*	0.051	0.817
3. Economic Benefits	0.924	17.988*	0.052	0.799
4. Traffic Problems	0.771	8.009*	0.096	0.576
5. Security Risks	0.798	14.926*	0.053	0.734
6. Economic Costs	0.815	16.567*	0.049	0.622
7. Environmental Concerns	0.828	14.930*	0.055	0.653

*p < 0.05 (statistical significance compares with Baseline Model)

Figure 1 depicts the results of confirmatory factor analysis for Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions to socio-economic impacts for FWC Qatar 2022 hosting. Table 4 indicates that all seven factors were significantly loaded into Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perceptions model. The factors with the first three highest loading were, positive socio-economic impacts, Community Development (0.954) followed by Community Pride (0.928), and Economic Benefits (0.924) respectively. Although Environmental Concern and Economic Costs were negative impacts, but it was fourth and fifth highest loading factor (0.828 and 0.815). Security Risks and Traffic Problems were lowest loading factors of the model (0.798 and 0.771). Model respecifications were neglected.

The quantitative data collected in the current study uncovered a number of themes relevant to the literature on the socio-economic impacts of FWC Qatar 2022. With regard to the research question, how was Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to FWC Qatar 2022 hosting, the deeper understanding of the socio-economical dimension was confirmed by two major answers as discuss below.

Firstly, Chon Buri Sports City residents perceived fewer negative impacts than other non-host city residents. Calculating the percentage of mean value related to its maximum scale, mean value of negative dimension in this study was 45.85% of 7-point direct rating scale (Mean = 3.21). Similar maximum scale of negative impacts perception of Rijeka residents (Perić, 2018) was 63.14%. In 5-point Likert scale, Garfield Country (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002) and Ottawa (Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012) residents’ negative perceptions were 57.80% and 62.60% (Mean = 2.89 and 3.13) respectively. The possible cause is that proximal host city residents directly attain the negative impacts as the host city residents. Beginning with coasts increasing, hosting of mega event can cause increase in the price of goods, services, and property. Taxes also may be increased to assist the public sector to fund the costs associated with the hosting of such event. Traffic congestion and parking problems often occur during the construction of facilities of the host city. Risk of crime and terrorism may increase as a result of an influx of people and migrant workers. Consequently, litter and waste, air pollution, noises levels, and urban development are environmental impacts appear as the environmental concerns of the hosting mega event (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009; Perić, 2018). In contrast, these negative impacts weakly extend to distal host residents. Qatar residents are not tangibly exhibit negative attitudes that exchange between Chon Buri residents (Ap, 1992). Thus, low perception to negative impacts in Traffic Problems, Security Risks, and Environmental Concerns dimensions were expressed by Chon Buri Sports City residents.

However, the mean values of Economic Costs and all positive impact dimensions are consistent with the extant literature in many ways. Economic Costs is generally perceived negative impacts as Perić (2018). The Qatari government’s estimation of USD 220 billion is ca. 17 times higher than the Russian investment (USD 14 billion) in the FWC Qatar 2022 (Subathra, Sivanesan, Narmadha, Senthikumar, Kitani, Essa, & Qoronfleh, 2022). This could be implied that hosting FWC Qatar 2022 significantly excessive spending on new infrastructure for the event, excessive spending for preparing the sport halls. For positive impacts, perception of Chon Buri Sport City residents similar to previous non-host city residents. The percentage of mean values from Garfield Country (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002), Chon Buri, Ottawa (Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012), and Rijeka (Perić, 2018) residents were high at 81.60%, 76.85%, 73.80%, and 70.85% (Mean = 4.08, 5.38, 3.69, and 4.96) respectively. It seems that hosting the FWC Qatar 2022 greatly induced Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to improved the image of hosting city, enhanced the community pride of local residents, and increased trade for local business.

Secondly, Positive impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 has more influenced on Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception than negative impacts. From the CFA results, the positive and negative items in total of 27 of the SPSI were significantly loaded into seven dimensions. Fit indices supported that the model was good fit. The three positive dimensions shown high standardized factor loading than four negative dimensions similar to the study of Perić (2018). It is new evidence supported that FWC non-host city residents perceived positive socio-economic impacts in hosting mega events including Summer Olympic Games (Liu, Broom, & Wilson, 2014; Chien, Kelly, & Chelsea (2017), Winter Olympic Games (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002; Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012), Paralympic Games (Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009), Commonwealth Games (Fairley, Cardillo, & Filo (2016), EHF European Handball Championship (Perić, 2018), and FWC. Community Development, Community Pride, and Economic Benefits are three major socio-economic impacts perceived by non-host city residents.

Although negative impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 has less perceived by Chon Buri Sports City residents, all four dimensions have significantly impacted. Factor loading values of Environmental Concerns, Economic Costs, Security Risks, and Traffic Problems imply that non-host city residents perceived negative impacts of hosting FWC depends on the distance between the host city. Rijeka residents, 164 kilometers from Zagreb, has higher negative perception (Perić, 2018) than Chon Buri residents for hosting FWC Qatar 2022. Supplementary, previous research showed that Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to Economic development was lowest impact than another four dimensions of the SBSC model (Chankuna & Khositdham, 2020). Then, hosting FWC Qatar 2020 also has less influenced on the Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to Economic Costs dimension than the positive impacts.

It should be mentioned that these results highlight how inadequately contributions of the six poor performance observed variables can still be kept as variables of the fit model. Contrary to previous literatures where the original SPSI emerged from 23 items, without environmental concerns at four items (Kim, Jun, Walker, & Drane, 2015) nor four poor performance items were discarded (Perić (2018). It would be assumed that environmental concerns are important dimension for assessing Thai residents’ perception than Korean. Combination of four items (EN1 to EN4) of Environmental Concerns factor and six poor performances in this study (CP3, CP4, TP2, SR4, EC3, and EN4) also enhanced the standardized factor loading and fit indices of the model. It is emphasized that assessing the perception of non-host city resident is uniqueness depends on their context. Extracted seven dimensions of SPSI was appropriate for Chon Buri Sports City residents.

Research Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study has two key limitations that can serve as the direction for future research. First, directly perceptions benchmarking between host and non-host city residents to explain sport tourism exchange at the individual or communal level was abandoned. Non-host city residents of qualified 32 national football teams in FWC, which have greater chance of sport tourism participation, might bring different results and conclusions. This would also have supported the usefulness of social exchange theory more robustly with empirical data. Secondly and finally, this study questioned respondents in the Chon Buri Sports City, a city whose mega-event programme is frequent organized and where participants may have experienced positive (and negative) impacts from other events, thus intervening the findings of this programme of research. Inclusion of FWC participants behavior in further research will strengthening the results of social exchange theory, e.g., watch live broadcasting, buy a national jersey, organize FWC-related marketing activity (event manager), report the match results (journalist), and travel to host city. Finally, for sustainability issue, perceptions often change over time (Waitt, 2003; Ritchie, Shipway, & Cleeve, 2009; Karadakis & Kaplanidou, 2012), legacy issue may not be perceived as current event. Longitudinal study may detect the perceptions that change positively or negatively.

Theoretical and Practice Implications

The results of this study contribute a number of implications for event managers and for stakeholders who seek to engage non-host cities in mega-events. First, due to the Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to socio-economic has fewer negative impacts than another non-host city, only Economic Costs was similar. The event should be promoted through online marketing channels that showcase event related benefits to the wider state and the nation. Event managers and relevant governmental bodies should actively seek to promote the event to engage residents outside of the host community. Further, promoting the event through Facebook Fanpage, as Tokyo Olympic Games (Chankuna & Amphai, 2021), may be help to increase interest among non-host city residents and also allow them to involve in the event. Proposed digital marketing on Facebook Fanpage model including the attract new consumers by stand out contents, apply both automatic and manual customer relationship systems, and integrate work with websites may diminish the potential for negative socio-economic impacts of FWC Qatar 2022 hosting.

Second, this study emphasized that positive impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 has more influenced on Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception than negative impacts. Mega-event bidder and twenty-third FWC co-host (Canada, Mexico, and United States) could consider to adopt Qatar investment proportion strategy for wider spreading socio-economic impacts. Stadium and infrastructure are vital spending, later in generate balance income from sports tourism as well as promote both community and nation. In this regard, the results of this study would also benefit event planners and sport marketers when trying to acquire community-wide support. Such a positive attitude toward hosting could have critical implications for the overall success of the future projects.

This study firstly assessed non-host city residents’ perception to FWC. The research question was, derived from extensive literatures emphasized on social exchange theory among mega-events, Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception to FWC Qatar 2022 hosting. After operated SPSI in Chon Buri Sports City residents during the Group stage matches, two major results completely answered the research questions. First, Chon Buri Sports City residents perceived fewer negative impacts than other non-host city residents. Second, positive impacts of hosting FWC Qatar 2022 has more influenced on Chon Buri Sports City residents’ perception than negative impacts. This study also filled the research gap by revealed the first evidence of farthest non-host city residents’ perception to FWC. Future research required the residents’ specific behavior verifying and longitudinal study. Sports policy maker and stakeholders has advantage for adopting practical implications regarding to develop that community.

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Acknowledgement

The author wishes to express warmest thanks to all Chon Buri Sports City residents who participated in this work. Thanks are also due to Dr.Vorramate Prajongjai and Assistant Professor Dr.Thitipong Sukdee for their friendly support.

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Socio-Economic Impacts of FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: A Study in Chon Buri Sports City Residents

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