Carbon trade-off with crop and water productivity in intensive rice-based cropping system in Eastern India

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2376548/v1

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Carbon trade-off with crop and water productivity in intensive rice-based cropping system in Eastern India

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2376548/v1

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To achieve sustainable crop and water productivity, carbon efficiency of rice-toria-sweet corn system by the synergies of nutrient management, rice variety and establishment method of toria and sweet corn, a field experiment was conducted during 2018-19 and 2019-20 at Bhubaneswar, Odisha. The treatments comprising of three nutrient management [N₁: 100% Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation (STBNR), N₂: 75% STBNR + in situ green manuring of Dhaincha (GM) and N₃: 50% STBNR + GM in rice, two rice varieties (V₁: ‘Manaswini’ of 130 d duration and V₂: ‘Hasanta’ of 145 d duration) and three crop establishment methods in toria viz., E₁: Zero Till-Flat Bed (ZT-FB), E₂: Conventional Till-Flat Bed (CT-FB) and E₃: Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed (CT-FIRB) were tried in split plot design with four replications. Sweet corn was grown after toria following the same lay out. Application of 75% STBNR+GM proved to be the best with the maximum system rice equivalent yield (REY) of 21.10 t ha^-1, input water productivity (IWP) of 0.44 kg REY ha-mm^-1, C output of 14,484 kg ha^-1, carbon efficiency (CE) of 8.58 and carbon sustainability index (CSI) of 7.58. ‘Manaswini’ rice-based system registered 4% higher REY as compared to ‘Hasanta’ rice-based system, but both systems were at par for IWP, carbon output, CE and CSI. System involving CT-FIRB recorded the maximum REY, IWP and carbon output, registering marginally higher values than ZT-FB and significantly higher value than CT-FB. Both CT-FIRB and ZT-FB were at par for CE and CSI.

Carbon foot prints

Carbon input

Crop biomass

Carbon output

Carbon Sustainability Index

Zero tillage

The climate of Eastern India varies from sub humid to per humid (Bandyopadhyay et al. 2015). Rice (Oryza sativa L.) based production system is the most dominant in different states of the region and rice is the only suitable crop in low lands in rainy season, being tolerant to waterlogging and submergence stress by forming lysigenous aerenchyma and a barrier to radial O₂ loss in roots in order to supply O₂ to the root tip (Nishiuchi et al. 2012). Rice, maize, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables are generally grown after rice during winter (rabi) /summer season for higher productivity and profitability of rice-based system (Patra et al. 2018) in Eastern India. Toria (Brassica campestris L. var. toria) is a preferred crop for winter season due to its shorter duration and low temperature tolerance behavior. As winter is short-lived in the region, timely seeding is very important to enable the crop complete its life cycle during low temperature period. Sweet corn (Zea mays con var. saccharata var. rugosa) is the most suitable crop for summer season due to possession of C₄ photosynthetic cycle, absence of photorespiration and covering of kernels by husk to resist hailstorm damage. In general, plants with C₄ pathway adapt to higher temperature and higher insolation conditions due to higher stomatal resistance (Zhou et al. 2018), whereas plants with C₃ pathway adapt to cool conditions with moderate insolation. Among C₃, C₄ and CAM species, C₃ plants possessed a greater ability for temperature acclimation of photosynthesis across a broad temperature range and C₄ plants was adapted to warm environments (Yamori et al. 2014). Throughout the year, there is demand of sweet corn in the market and the crop brings more cash to the farmers’ purse. Congenial weather conditions to toria and sweet corn can be ensured by sowing them in right window which is dependent on duration of rice variety adopted in the system.

Rice is grown in area of 44.5 Mha with production of 116.42 Mt milled rice (paddy 174.63 Mt) and productivity of 2616 kg ha^− 1 milled rice (paddy 3924 kg ha^− 1) in India as against global area of 167.1 Mha, production of 521.33 Mt milled rice (paddy 782 Mt) with productivity of 3120 kg ha^− 1 milled rice (paddy 4680 kg ha^− 1 (FAO, 2020; GoI, 2020) indicating a gap between Indian and global productivity. Rice productivity in India can be increased by suitable nutrient and varietal management. Recently, soil test-based fertilizer recommendation (STBFR) is widely followed instead of fertilizer application based on blanket dose. Rajput et al. (2016) reported higher yield of rice under STBFR based balanced fertilization than general recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). Being a cereal crop, the nitrogen requirement of rice is very high i.e., 20 kg N tonne^− 1 of economic product. On the other hand, nitrogen recovery efficiency of chemical N fertilizers is very low (20 to 45%) in Indian rice fields because of various types of N losses as nitrate (NO₃-N) leaching, ammonia (NH₃) volatilization, surface runoff and denitrification (Prasad and Shivay 2021). Besides, nitrous oxide, a potential source of greenhouse gas with global warming potential 265 times more than carbon dioxide is emitted to the atmosphere. But biologically fixed nitrogen is less subjected to such losses and is also eco-friendly in nature warranting substitution of a part of the chemical nitrogen with organic manures for better crop performance and improvement in soil health for healthy environment. Different organic sources of nitrogen viz., farm yard manure (Kundu and Brahmachari 2012; Nanda and Singh 2015; Apon et al. 2018), poultry manure (Moe et al. 2019), rice stubble (Krishnakumar and Haefele 2013; Sarangi et al. 2020), vermicompost (Rama Lakshmi et al. 2012), green manuring (Mandal et al. 2003), Azolla (Sarangi et al. 2014) have been recommended for integration. Ahmed et al. (2020) have reported advantages of green manuring of Dhaincha in rice.

Drought, flood and cyclone affect performance of rice crop in Eastern India. Samal and Pandey (2005) reported occurrence of biotic stresses viz., flood/submergence to different degrees in 5 years, drought in 3 years and cyclone in one year out of the total 8 years in Eastern Indian state like Odisha, causing production losses. The problem of climate change can be addressed partly through development and dissemination of adapted varieties. Farmers are habituated to grow long duration rice varieties in rice-based cropping systems, but growing a comparatively shorter duration rice may provide congenial thermal regime to toria and avoid coincidence of heat stress at anthesis and grain filling stage of sweet corn.

Appropriate method of stand establishment plays a major role in enhancing productivity and resource use efficiency of rabi and summer crops in rice-based cropping systems. Conventional tillage is time and labour consuming, but it provides a clean seed bed. Zero tillage, on the other hand, advances sowing date by 7–10 days and provides congenial weather and soil conditions for growth and development of post rice crops. Tillage practices/land modifications influence water use efficiency and the productivity of crops. Zero tillage was at par with minimum tillage in yield and economics (Banjara et al. 2017). Zero tillage was the most economical and attractive option for toria in Maniupur, India (Monika et al. 2014). Marketable ears and fresh ear yield of sweet corn were higher in zero-tillage compared to conventional tillage (Etemadi et al. 2018), which contradicts findings of Gul et al. (2011). But, crop yields can be similar in conventional and conservation tillage systems if weeds are controlled and crop stands are uniform (Mahajan et al. 2011).

Among all GHGs, carbon dioxide occurs in the greatest concentration and has the strongest radiative forcing among all (Wang et al. 2010) and contributes the maximum to the global warming. Crop management practices should aim at reducing carbon foot print associated with various agro-inputs and field operations, minimizing carbon dioxide efflux from field during cropping period to the atmosphere and sequester atmospheric carbon di-oxide. Cropping systems play a critical role by influencing yield, C sequestration by biomass and soil Wang et al. 2010). We evaluated nitrogen management for rice varieties of varying duration and establishment of post rice crops to find out productive and carbon efficient management practices for rice-toria-sweet corn system.

Description of experimental site

The field experiment was conducted during 2018-19 and 2019-20 at Bhubaneswar (20^o15’ N latitude and 85^o52’ E longitude with an elevation of 25.9 m above mean sea level), Odisha, India to assess productivity, carbon efficiency and soil health of rice-toria-sweet corn system under nutrient management in rice variety and establishment method of toria and sweet corn. The location comes under Agro Ecological Sub Region (AESR) 18.4 as per classification of National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur, India with moisture deficit index (MDI) value of -0 to -20 and length of growing season of 180 to 210 days under rainfed condition. Thermal regime provides opportunities for round the year cropping with irrigation.

Treatment allocation and imposition

The treatments comprising of three nutrient management (N₁: 100% Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation (STBNR), N₂: 75% STBNR + in situ green manuring (Dhaincha) and N₃: 50% STBNR + in situ green manuring of Dhaincha) in rice, two rice varieties (V₁: ‘Manaswini’ of 130 d duration and V₂: ‘Hasanta’ of 145 d duration) and three crop establishment methods in toria viz., E₁: Zero Till-Flat Bed (ZT-FB), E₂: Conventional Till-Flat Bed (CT-FB) and E₃: Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed (CT-FIRB) were tried in split plot design with four replications. Sweet corn was grown after toria following the same lay out.

The recommended dose of fertiliser for rice in the zone is 80-40-40 kg N-P₂O₅-K₂O ha^-1. Soil samples were collected and analysed following standard procedure (supplementary Table S1). As per soil test report, the soil was low in available nitrogen (195.4 kg ha^-1), medium in available phosphorus (16.7 kg ha^-1) and medium in available potassium (187.1 kg ha^-1). Hence, rice crop was fertilised with 100-40-40 kg N-P₂O₅-K₂O ha^-1. Each plot under rice was divided into three sub plots to impose three crop establishment methods for post rice crops. The input requirements for individual crops were recorded and converted to per hectare (Table 1).

Table 1

Input requirements of the rice, *toria* and sweet corn as influenced by nutrient management in rice and establishment methods for post rice crops
Input	Rice			Toria			Sweet corn
Input	N₁	N₂	N₃	E₁	E₂	E₃	E₁	E₂	E₃
Fertilizer and seed (kg ha^− 1)
N	100	75	50	50	50	50	120	120	120
P₂O₅	40	40	40	25	25	25	60	60	60
K₂O	40	40	40	25	25	25	60	60	60
Seed	50	75	75	5	5	5	6	6	6
Plant protection chemicals (kg ha^− 1)
Fungicide	0.125	0.125	0.125	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01	0.01
Herbicide	0.2	0.2	0.2	3.5	1	1	2.75	0.25	0.25
Insecticide	3	3	3	1	1	1	2	2	2
Irrigation (mm-ha^− 1)	-	-	-	150	200	149	425	475	347
Diesel (L ha^− 1)	35	35	35	27	56	47	76.5	100.5	78
Machinery (hr ha^− 1)	14	14	14	18	32	26	51	63	48
Labour (8 hr day^− 1 ha^− 1)	145	145	145	67	64	72	118	115	123

N₁-100% Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation (STBNR), N₂-75% STBNR + in situ green manuring (Dhaincha), N₃-50% STBNR + in situ green manuring (Dhaincha), E₁- Zero Till-Flat Bed, E₂- Conventional Till-Flat Bed and E₃- Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed

Crop management

Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) was sown @ 25 kg seeds ha^-1 as per the treatment specifications and was incorporated in the field at six-week stage. Rice seedlings were raised in dry bed nursery with seed rate of 50 kg ha^-1. Seedlings of 25–30 days were planted in the main field @ 2 hill s at a spacing of 20 cm x 10 cm on 25 July in 2018 and 3 August 2019. Rice cv. ‘Manaswini’ was harvested on 13 November in 2018 and 15 November in 2019. The cv. ‘Hasanta’ was harvested on 27 and 28 November in the respective year. The total killer systemic herbicide glyphosate @ 1.0 kg ha^-1 was sprayed on the next day after harvest of rice to kill escaped weeds in Zero Till-Flat Bed (ZT-FB) plots. In Conventional Till-Flat Bed (CT-FB) and Conventional Till-FIRB (CT-FIRB), primary and secondary tillage operations were executed before seeding. Additionally, in CT-FIRB plots, land was modified into beds of 75cm width and 15 cm height and furrows of 25cm width. Three rows of toria and two rows of sweet corn were accommodated per bed. Recommended fertilizer doses of 50-25-25 kg N-P₂O₅-K₂O ha^-1 for toria and 120-60-60 kg N-P₂O₅-K₂O ha^-1 for sweet corn were applied uniformly to all the plots.

Water productivity

Rain water productivity for rice was computed assuming 70% of rainfall as effective rainfall (Turner 2004). Rice was grown with rain water during both the years. Time of irrigation for post rice crops was determined by considering IW/CPE of 0.8 for toria (Shekhawat et al. 2012) and 1.0 for sweet corn (Mallaready et al. 2012). Rain water productivity (kg grain yield ha-mm^− 1) for rice or input water productivity for the post rice crops was determined by diving economic produce (kg ha^− 1) with input water (ha-mm). The system water productivity was calculated by dividing the REY (kg ha^− 1) with the total water use (ha-mm) as per (Jha et al. 1976).

Carbon dioxide efflux

The CO₂ evolved was measured at sowing and harvest of each crop and at 15 days interval. For this, one 100 ml measuring cylinder was inverted by slightly pressing it from the top-base into soil over uncapped plastic graduated test-tubes containing 30 ml of 0.1 N NaOH solution so as to absorb carbon dioxide. After elapse of 48 hours, the test-tubes were brought to the laboratory for analysis after putting the caps at the top. The excess NaOH was titrated with 0.1 N HCl after precipitating carbonates with BaCl₂ using phenolphthalein as indicator. The colour changes from pink to milky white (Witkamp 1966; Dwibedi et al. 2021).

The amount of CO₂ efflux was calculated by using the following formula:

Where,

T₁ = Amount of HCl used to neutralize NaOH from titration

T₂ = Amount of NaOH taken initially i.e. 30 ml

M = Normality of HCl i.e. 0.1

22 = 22 mg CO₂ 1 ml^− 1 1 N HCL

A = Cross section of the measuring cylinder in cm²

T = Time in days (2 days in this case)

Carbon budgeting

Carbon footprints of various inputs were computed (Table 2) by using emission factors (supplementary Table S2). Carbon footprints per tonne (Mg) of produce (CFy) was found out by dividing carbon footprints (CFs) by yield in tonne per hectare (Lal 2004). Carbon inputs, Carbon output, Carbon Sustainability Index and Carbon Efficiency values were computed by following procedure given by Pandey and Agrawal 2014; Jamali et al. 2021. Carbon inputs were calculated as (sum of total GHG emissions in terms of CO₂ equivalents) × 12/44.

Carbon output = Total biomass × 0.45

Carbon Sustainability Index= (Carbon output-Carbon input)/Carbon input

Carbon Efficiency = Carbon output/Carbon input

Table 2

Carbon foot print (kg CO₂ e ha^− 1) of inputs used in the experiment
Input	Rice			Toria			Sweet corn
Input	N₁	N₂	N₃	N₁	N₂	N₃	N₁	E2	E3
Fertilizer and seed
N	496	372	248	248	248	248	595.2	595.2	595.2
P₂O₅	54	54	54	33.75	33.75	33.75	81	81	81
K₂O	23.2	23.2	23.2	14.5	14.5	14.5	34.8	34.8	34.8
Fert. Total	573.2	449.2	325.2	296.25	296.25	296.25	711	711	711
Seed	61	91.5	91.5	6.1	6.1	6.1	7.32	7.32	7.32
Plant protection chemicals, fuel and labour
Fungicide	0.49	0.49	0.49	0.039	0.039	0.039	0.039	0.039	0.039
Herbicide	1.26	1.26	1.26	22.05	6.3	6.3	17.32	1.58	1.58
Insecticide	15.3	15.3	15.3	5.1	5.1	5.1	10.2	10.2	10.2
Diesel	116.2	116.2	116.2	89.6	185.9	156	254	333.7	259
Labour	124.7	124.7	124.7	57.62	55.04	61.92	101.5	98.9	105.8
Total	892	799	675	477	555	532	1101	1163	1095
Share of fertilizer (%)	64	56	48	62	53	56	65	61	65

N₁-100% Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation (STBNR), N₂-75% STBNR + in situ green manuring (Dhaincha, N₃-50% STBNR + in situ green manuring (Dhaincha), E₁- Zero Till-Flat Bed, E₂- Conventional Till-Flat Bed and E₃- Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed

Data analysis

The data obtained on various characters were averaged and analyzed statistically as per randomized complete block design (RCBD) for rice and split-plot design for toria and sweet corn (Gomez and Gomez 1984). The standard error of mean (SEm±) and critical difference (CD) at 5% probability level were calculated to interpret the results. Pooled analysis was done to get mean of two years, where year to year variations were non-significant.

Crop productivity

Rice yield

Application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum grain yield of 6.18 t ha^− 1 and straw yield of 6.71 t ha^− 1 reflecting increase of 11.4 and 7.9% over 100% STBNR and 19.5 and 11.5% over 50% STBNR + GM, respectively (Table 3). The former treatment ensured adequate and balanced nutrition and prolonged the N availability due to slow release of the element from organic source, closely matching with real time demand of the crop. The INM practice provides adequate nutrition and enhances crop productivity without deteriorating soil health (Ayalew and Dejene 2012). The researchers viz. Islam et al. (2015), Islam et al. (2019), Worlie and Admassu (2016) and Ahmed et al. (2020) reported higher yield of rice with integrated nutrient management comprising chemical fertiliser and green manuring. The extent of N substitution by green manuring varies. Bajpai et al. (2002) reported the maximum rice grain yield of 6.18 t ha^− 1 by green manuring with supplementation of 50% recommended N by dhaincha. Qaswar et al. (2019) reported statistically similar grain yield of rice with green manuring + 80kg N ha^− 1 and green manuring with 100 kg N ha^− 1 in rice-rice system indicating substitution by green manuring to the extent of 20% of N. In the present investigation green manuring with dhaincha has substituted 25% of recommended N of rice. Sub-optimal N supply with 50% STBNR + GM could not meet the N need of the crop resulting in reduced growth of the crop in conformity with the findings of Kumar et al. (2017) for rice at Bahraich, UP, India.

Rice cv. ‘Hasanta’ recorded grain yield of 5.97 t ha^− 1, registering an increase of 12.9% over rice cv. ‘Manaswini’. Rice cv. ‘Hasanta’ recorded straw yield of 6.56 t ha^− 1 representing increase of 8.3% over cv. ‘Manaswini’. Rice cv. ‘Hasanta’ was about 15 days longer in duration than cv. ‘Manaswini’. Lal et al. (2017) reported higher grain yield in long duration rice cv. ‘Gayatri’ compared to medium duration rice ‘Swarna’ and short duration rice ‘Naveen’. Harish et al. (2017) under Meghalaya condition and Kar et al. (2018a and 2018b) under Odisha condition reported varietal variation for yield. The nutrient management practices and cultivars exhibited the similar trend for grain and straw.

Table 3

Effect of nutrient management and rice variety on yield and carbon indices of rice (pooled data of 2018-19 and 2019-20)
Treatment	Grain yield (t ha^− 1)	Straw yield (t ha^− 1)	Total biomass (t ha^− 1)	C output (kg ha^− 1)	C input (kg ha^− 1)	CE	CSI
Nutrient management
100% STBNR	5.55	6.22	11.76	5293	597	8.85	7.85
75% STBNR + GM	6.18	6.71	12.88	5798	567	10.24	9.24
50% STBNR + GM	5.17	6.02	11.19	5034	525	9.59	8.59
SE(m)±	0.13	0.11	0.22	100	-	0.18	0.18
CD (0.05)	0.36	0.33	0.64	288	-	0.51	0.51
Rice variety
Manaswini	5.29	6.06	11.35	5108	546	9.40	8.40
Hasanta	5.97	6.56	12.54	5641	581	9.72	8.72
SE(m)±	0.10	0.09	0.18	82	-	0.14	0.14
CD (0.05)	0.30	0.27	0.52	235	-	NS	NS

STBNR-Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation, GM- Green Manuring, CE- Carbon Efficiency, CSI- Carbon Sustainability Index

Toria

Residual effects of nutrient management in rice and rice cultivars and direct effects of establishment methods of post rice crops influenced toria seed yield significantly (Table 4). Application of 75% STBNR + GM in rice recorded toria seed yield of 1.21 t ha^− 1 and stover yield of 2.44 t ha^− 1. Application of 50% STBNR + GM recorded similar seed and stover yield, whereas application of 100% STBNR to rice recorded significantly less seed and stover yield. The positive residual effects of green manuring on yield of toria was due to improvement in physical, chemical and biological properties of soil. Green manuring in rice enhanced yield of succeeding wheat (Bajpai et al. 2002; Boparai and Singh 2009; Mandal et al. 2003), lentil (Singh et al. 2004) and mustard (Irin et al. 2020).

Toria after ‘Manaswini’ rice recorded mean seed and stover yield of 1.18 and 2.38 t ha^− 1 reflecting increase of 12.4 and 8.2% over toria sown after ‘Hasanta’ rice. Early harvest of ‘Manaswini’ rice advanced toria sowing by 10 days and the crop could get better thermal environment for growth and yield. Shekhawat et al. (2012) while reviewing research works on agronomic management of rapeseed and mustard revealed that sowing time influenced physiological development of crop plants through temperature and heat unit. Patel et al. (2017) reported the maximum seed and stover yield from mustard sown on 14 November.

Establishment methods of toria influenced yield attributes and yield of seed and stover significantly. Toria was sown 10 days earlier under zero Till-Flat Bed sowing. Being a temperate/cool season crop, time of sowing had significant effect on yield of the crop. Toria under Zero Till-Flat Bed took the maximum days to physiological maturity (72 days). Zero Till-Flat Bed sowing recorded the maximum seed yield of 1.22 t ha^− 1 and stover yield of 2.42 t ha^− 1 and proved superior to other two establishment methods. Sarkar et al. (2007) reported taller plants, longer siliqua and higher seed yield of yellow sarson under zero tillage. Ram et al. (2017) and Ghosh et al. (2021) reported better growth and yield attributes of wheat in maize-wheat-greengram system under zero tillage than conventional tillage. Shekhawat et al. (2016) reported higher yield of mustard under both zero tillage and FIRB in Rajasthan, India. Banjara et al. (2017) reported similar performance of mustard under minimum tillage line sowing and zero tillage direct drilling. Singh et al. (2001) reported higher yield of wheat under zero tillage than conventional tillage in Trans-Gangetic Plain of India (Punjab and Haryana). However, some workers as Saha et al. (2010), Mishra et al. (2019) and Gupta et al. (2020) reported better performance of mustard under conventional tillage.

Table 4

Effect of nutrient management in rice variety and establishment of post rice crops on yield and carbon indices of *toria* (pooled data of 2018-19 and 2019-20)
Treatment	Seed yield (t ha^− 1)	Stover yield (t ha^− 1)	Total biomass (t ha^− 1)	C output (kg ha^− 1)	C input (kg ha^− 1)	CE	CSI
Nutrient management
100% STBNR	0.99	2.09	3.08	1387	325	4.28	3.28
75% STBNR + GM	1.21	2.44	3.65	1644	329	5.00	4.00
50% STBNR + GM	1.15	2.34	3.49	1569	329	4.77	3.77
SE(m)±	0.02	0.03	0.05	23		0.07	0.07
CD (0.05)	0.06	0.09	0.14	65		0.20	0.20
Rice variety
Manaswini	1.18	2.38	3.56	1601	332	4.82	3.82
Hasanta	1.05	2.20	3.26	1465	323	4.55	3.55
SE(m)±	0.02	0.02	0.04	18		0.06	0.06
CD (0.05)	0.05	0.07	0.12	53		0.16	0.16
Establishment of post rice crops
ZT-FB	1.22	2.42	3.64	1639	320	5.12	4.12
CT-FB	0.97	2.09	3.06	1376	334	4.11	3.11
CT-FIRB	1.16	2.36	3.52	1585	329	4.82	3.82
SE(m)±	0.01	0.02	0.02	11		0.03	0.03
CD (0.05)	0.03	0.05	0.07	31		0.09	0.09

STBNR-Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation, GM- Green Manuring, CE- Carbon Efficiency, CSI- Carbon Sustainability Index, ZT-FB- Zero Till-Flat Bed, CT-FB-Conventional Till-Flat Bed and CT-FIRB- Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed

Sweet corn

Application of 75% STBNR + GM to rice recorded sweet corn green cob yield of 18.11 t ha^− 1 (Table 5). Application of 50% STBNR + GM recorded similar green cob yield, whereas application of 100% STBNR recorded significantly less green cob yield. Application of 75% STBNR + GM and 50% STBNR + GM gave green cob yields of 18.11 and 17.39 t ha^− 1 registering 11.7 and 7.3% higher yield over 100% STBNR, respectively. Application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum dry seed and green fodder yield, being at par with 50% STBNR + GM and significantly superior to 100% STBNR. The superiority of green manure based INM practices in enhancing sweet corn yield was due to improvement in several physico-chemical and biological properties of soil. The positive effects of green manuring on the succeeding and tomato (winter)-okra (summer) and potato (winter)-okra (summer) were reported by Patra et al. (2016). Cherr et al. (2007) reported better effects of summer + winter green manure than summer or winter green manure alone on sweet corn cv. ‘Rugosa’.

Sweet corn after ‘Manaswini’ rice-toria recorded green cob, dry seed and dry stover yield of 18.07, 3.13 and 12.45 t ha^− 1, respectively reflecting increase of 10.2, 9.8 and 6.7% over sweet corn after ‘Hasanta’ rice-toria. Sweet corn after ‘Manaswini’ rice-toria recorded higher fresh cob yield than that after ‘Hasanta’ rice-toria due to earlier sowing. Delayed sowing affected sweet corn yield due to terminal heat stress at later stages. Liaqat et al. (2018) and Akhtar et al. (2021) reported decrease in days to various phenophases in maize due to delayed sowing. Schlenker and Roberts (2009) reported decline in maize yield after mean temperature threshold of 29 ^oC. Zhang et al. (2019) reported decline in maize yield due to high daily maximum temperature and wide diurnal temperature during silking to blister stage of maize.

Conventional Till-FIRB recorded the maximum green cob of 18.54 t ha^− 1 and dry seed yield of 3.20 t ha^− 1 and proved significantly superior to both Zero Till-Flat Bed and Conventional Till-Flat Bed. In case of dry stover yield, conventional Till-FIRB sowing recorded the maximum value of 12.70 t ha^− 1 and proved superior to Conventional Till-Flat Bed method, but marginally higher value over Zero Till-Flat Bed method. Sweet corn performed better under Conventional Till-FIRB due to lower perennial weeds (Marwat et al. 2007) and better soil properties as lower bulk density. Zero Till-Flat Bed method helped in early sowing. Kumar et al. (2018) reported higher grain yield under bed method as compared to zero tillage and conventional tillage without bed. Gurjar et al. (2017) and Geries et al. (2015) reported higher yield of onion under bed planting than flatbed planting. Das et al. (2014) reported higher crop and water productivity of cotton-wheat system under bed than flat method of sowing.

Table 5

Effect of nutrient management in rice variety and establishment of post rice crops on yield and carbon indices of sweet corn (pooled data of 2018-19 and 2019-20)
Treatment	Fresh cob (t ha^− 1)	Dry kernel (t ha^− 1)	Dry stover yield (t ha^− 1)	Total biomass (t ha^− 1)	C output (kg ha^− 1)	C input (kg ha^− 1)	CE	CSI
Nutrient management
100% STBNR	16.21	2.85	11.40	14.25	6415	782	8.22	7.22
75% STBNR + GM	18.11	3.12	12.53	15.65	7042	793	8.89	7.89
50% STBNR + GM	17.39	2.99	12.24	15.23	6852	780	8.98	7.98
SE(m)±	0.32	0.06	0.16	0.21	96		0.22	0.22
CD (0.05)	0.91	0.16	0.47	0.61	276		0.63	0.63
Rice variety
Manaswini	18.07	3.13	12.45	15.57	7007	797	8.81	7.81
Hasanta	16.40	2.85	11.67	14.52	6532	773	8.59	7.59
SE(m)±	0.26	0.05	0.13	0.17	78		0.18	0.18
CD (0.05)	0.74	0.13	0.38	0.50	225		NS	NS
Establishment of post rice crops
ZT-FB	17.60	3.04	12.36	15.40	6930	774	8.96	7.96
CT-FB	15.56	2.72	11.12	13.84	6227	802	7.76	6.76
CT-FIRB	18.54	3.20	12.70	15.89	7152	779	9.37	8.37
SE(m)±	0.17	0.03	0.10	0.13	56		0.20	0.20
CD (0.05)	0.47	0.09	0.30	0.35	159		0.56	0.56

STBNR-Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation, GM- Green Manuring, C- Carbon, CE- Carbon Efficiency, CSI- Carbon Sustainability Index, ZT-FB- Zero Till-Flat Bed, CT- FB-Conventional Till-Flat Bed and CT-FIRB- Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Application of 75% STBNR + GM gave the maximum system REY of 21.10 t ha^− 1, registering 13 and 8% higher value over 100% STBNR and 50% STBNR + GM, respectively (Fig. 1a). Adequate and continuous supply of N to rice and residual effect of green manure on post rice crops under the former maximized the system yield. ‘Manaswini’ rice-based systems recorded 4% higher REY compared to ‘Hasanta’ rice-based systems due to earliness of establishment of post rice crops. Systems involving CT-FIRB recorded the maximum REY, registering marginally higher value than ZT-FB and significantly higher value than CT-FB. Zentner et al. (2002) reported higher yield and net return of cropping systems under zero and minimum tillage than conventional tillage under the Canadian prairies.

Carbon indices

Carbon footprint, input and output for varying nutrient management in rice and crop establishment in toria and sweet corn were computed to compare their contribution to GHG emission. Carbon footprint due to use of various inputs (Table 1) in the experiment were computed by multiplying quantity of inputs with respective emission equivalents (Deng 1982; Lal 2004). Among inputs used in the experiment, fertiliser accounted for 48–65% of carbon foot print due to inputs. Lal et al. (2019) reported the maximum contribution of fertiliser to carbon footprint in rice maize system. Human labour and diesel ranked the second and the third for contribution to carbon footprint in rice grown as a rainfed crop, while diesel and human labour ranked the second and the third in toria and sweet corn grown as irrigated crop. The carbon dioxide efflux under each treatment was directly measured from the field during crop life cycles. The C footprint as CO₂ due to use of inputs and CO₂ efflux were added to get treatment wise total carbon footprint. The carbon footprint in terms of CO₂ was multiplied by factor 0.27 to get carbon input per hectare for rice (Table 3), toria (Table 4), sweet corn (Table 5) and rice-toria-sweet corn system (Fig. 1b). Carbon in plant biomass can be computed by using a standard multiplier of 0.45–0.50 (IPCC 2014). Ma et al. (2018) found higher C in woody than herbaceous parts of plant. Carbon output was equal to carbon sequestered in biological yield and computed by multiplying dry biomass yield of the cropping system multiplied by 0.45 (Jamali et al. 2021). Carbon efficiency was computed as ratio between carbon output and carbon input.

Rice

Application of 100% STBNR recorded carbon input of 597 kg ha^− 1 as against 567 and 525 kg ha^− 1 in case of 75% STBNR + GM and 50% STBNR + GM, respectively (Table 3). Jamali et al. (2021) reported global warming potential of rice fields varying from 876 to 2666 eq-CO₂ kg ha^− 1 (239 to 727 kg ha^− 1). Among nutrient management practices in rice, application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum CE and CSE values of 10.24 and 9.24, respectively due to the maximum biomass yield and carbon input under the treatment. Jamali et al. (2021) reported the maximum CE and CSE of 23.52 and 22.52 with surface water application + traditional method of transplanting + high yielding rice and the minimum CE and CSE of 8.71 and 7.71, respectively, with ground water + mechanical transplanting + low yielding rice variety in Iran. Between the two rice varieties, cv. ‘Hasanta’ registered significantly higher carbon indices than cv. ‘Manaswini’ due to the same reasons.

Toria

Application of 75% STBNR + GM to rice recorded the maximum biomass yield of toria leading to the maximum CE of 5.00 and CSI of 4.00. Toria sown after ‘Manaswini’ rice recorded biomass yield of 3.56 t ha^− 1, CE 4.82 and CSI of 3.82, respectively and proved to be significantly superior to toria after ‘Hasanta’ rice. Among establishment methods of post rice crops, Zero Till-Flat Bed method was the best with the maximum biomass yield of 3.64 t ha^− 1, the carbon output of 1639 kg ha^− 1, the maximum CE of 5.12 and CSI of 4.12 (Table 4).

Sweet corn

Both 75% STBNR + GM and 50% STBNR + GM, being at par for carbon output, CE and CSI, recorded significantly higher values than application of chemical fertilizer (100% STBNR) alone. Sweet corn after ‘Manaswini’ rice-toria, recorded higher carbon output than that after ‘Hasanta’ rice-toria. The two varieties failed to exert significant influence on CE and CSI of sweet corn. Among establishment methods for post rice crops, CT-FIRB recorded the maximum biomass yield of 15.89 t ha^− 1 and biomass carbon yield of 7152 kg ha^− 1and proved significantly superior to ZT-FB, but both CT-FIRB and ZT-FB were at par for CE and CSI (Table 5).

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Rice based cropping systems involving application of 75% STBNR + GM was the most carbon efficient with the maximum C output of 14,484 kg ha^− 1, CE of 8.58 and CSI of 7.58 (Fig. 1c & d). Substitution of chemical N with dhaincha green manuring reduced carbon input. Better soil environment under green manure based nutrient management gave higher system biological yield. Both ‘Manaswini’ and ‘Hasanta’ rice-based systems were equally carbon efficient. Among establishment of post rice crops, rice-toria-sweet corn systems involving CT-FIRB for post rice crops recorded marginally higher carbon output than ZT-FB based system, but both the treatments were at par for CSI and CE. Lal et al. (2019) reported carbon input of 584–762 kg ha^− 1, carbon output of 5324–6490 kg ha^− 1, CE of 8.08–9.47 and CSI of 7.08–8.47 in rice-maize system under combined influence of tillage practices, residue management and N levels.

Rainfall, irrigation and input water

Rice received 22% higher rainfall during 2018 (1731 mm) as compared to 2019 (1418 mm). Due to meager rainfall in winter season, the water requirement of toria was mostly met by irrigation (Fig. 2a). Irrigation requirement was equal during both the years. Slight variation in seasonal input water requirement was due to difference in rainfall. Rainfall receipt during crop life of sweet corn was higher during 2019-20. Thus, the irrigation need was less during the year (Fig. 2b). The variation among treatments for receipt of rainfall and irrigation need was a reflection of varying crop duration and growing of crop during varying period of the calendar year. The rice-toria-sweet corn cropping system was benefitted by higher rainfall during crop growth period of sweet corn during 2019-20 (Fig. 2c).

Water productivity

Rice

Higher rainfall in 2018 led to low rain water productivity during the year (Table 6). Among nutrient management practices, application of 75% STBNR + dhaincha green manuring recorded the maximum rain water productivity during both the years. Pooled over seasons, this nutrient management practice recorded rain water productivity of 5.69 kg grain ha mm^− 1, reflecting increases of 11.6 and 19.5% over 100% STBNR and 50% STBNR + dhaincha green manuring, respectively. Judicious combination between chemical nitrogen and green manuring contributed to higher grain yield and water productivity. Rice cv. ‘Hasanta’ recorded significantly higher rain water productivity than cv. ‘Manaswini’ during both the years with mean rain water productivity of 5.50 kg grain ha mm^− 1, registering increase of 12.9% due to higher grain yield potential of the former. Turner (2004) established the role of agronomic options as fertilizer management and choice of cultivar in enhancing rainfall use efficiency of dryland crops. Kar et al. (2018a) and Kar et al. (2018b) have also reported varietal differences in rice grown during both wet and dry season for grain yield and water productivity.

Table 6

Water productivity of component crops (rice, *toria* and sweet corn) under various treatments
Treatment	RUE in rice (kg grain ha-mm^− 1)			IWP in toria (kg seed ha-mm^− 1)			IWP in sweet corn (kg fresh cob ha-mm^− 1)
Treatment	Y1	Y2	Mean	Y1	Y2	Mean	Y1	Y2	Mean
Nutrient management
100% STBNR	4.43	5.77	5.10	6.18	6.15	6.17	39.98	81.52	60.75
75% STBNR + GM	4.88	6.51	5.69	7.65	7.34	7.50	44.77	88.59	66.68
50% STBNR + GM	4.11	5.41	4.76	7.28	7.00	7.14	43.19	85.98	64.59
SE(m)±	0.17	0.15	0.11	0.18	0.20	0.13	1.01	2.15	1.19
CD (0.05)	0.51	0.45	0.33	0.55	0.60	0.39	3.05	NS	3.43
Rice variety
Manaswini	4.21	5.53	4.87	7.48	7.18	7.33	44.85	81.97	63.41
Hasanta	4.73	6.26	5.50	6.59	6.48	6.54	40.44	88.76	64.60
SE(m)±	0.14	0.12	0.09	0.15	0.16	0.11	0.83	1.76	0.97
CD (0.05)	0.42	0.37	0.27	0.45	0.49	0.32	2.49	5.29	NS
Establishment of post rice crops
ZT-FB	-	-	-	8.31	7.99	8.15	39.69	65.32	52.50
CT-FB	-	-	-	4.96	4.74	4.85	33.99	69.88	51.94
CT -FIRB	-	-	-	7.85	7.75	7.80	54.27	120.89	87.58
SE(m)±	-	-	-	0.08	0.08	0.06	0.74	1.12	0.67
CD (0.05)	-	-	-	0.23	0.23	0.16	2.14	3.21	1.90
Mean	-	-	-	7.04	6.83	6.93	42.65	85.36	64.01

RUE- Rain water Use Efficiency, IWP- Input Water Productivity, Y₁- Year 1, Y₂- Year 2, STBNR-Soil Test Based Nitrogen Recommendation, GM- Green Manuring, ZT-FB- Zero Till-Flat Bed, CT-FB- Conventional Till-Flat Bed and CT-FIRB- Conventional Till-Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed

Toria

Input water productivity in toria was decided by yield under various treatments (Table 6). Application of 75% STBNR + GM in rice recorded the maximum input water productivity of 7.65 and 7.34 kg grain ha mm^− 1in toria, during the 1st and the 2nd year, respectively, being at par with application of 50% STBNR + GM, but significantly superior to application of chemical fertiliser alone. Pooled over seasons, application of 75% STBFR + GM and 50% STBNR + GM recorded input water productivity of 7.50 and 7.14 kg grain ha mm^− 1, respectively, reflecting increase of 21.6 and 15.7%, respectively over 100% STBNR. The residual effects of green manuring in terms of favourable physico-chemical and biological properties helped in increasing toria seed yield and input water productivity. Mandal et al. (2003) reported higher yields in green manure plots than fallow both in rice and succeeding wheat crop. Singh et al. (2004) reported significant residual effect of organic sources of nutrients viz., FYM, dhaincha green manuring, green gram green manuring after one picking and carpet waste applied to rice on yield of succeeding lentil. Bajpai et al. (2002) and Gautam et al. (2021) reported higher grain yield of post rice wheat crop due to pre rice green manuring. Toria after ‘Manaswini’ rice recorded significantly higher input water productivity than that after ‘Hasanta’ rice. Pooled over seasons, toria after ‘Manaswini’ rice recorded input water productivity of 7.33 kg seed ha mm^− 1 water reflecting increase of 12% over toria after ‘Hasanta’ rice. ‘Manaswini’ rice, being shorter by 13 days compared to ‘Hasanta’ rice facilitated early sowing of toria. Being a cool season crop, early sowing provided congenial environment favourable for optimum growth, development and yield of the crop leading to higher input water productivity. Sorokhaibam et al. (2016) reported water use efficiency of 19.51 kg ha-mm^− 1 under early sown rapeseed in rice-rapeseed cropping system as against 17.64 kg ha-mm^− 1 in rapeseed sown later. Among establishment of post rice crops, Zero Till-Flat Bed method recorded the maximum input water productivity. Conventional Till-FIRB method ranked the second for input water productivity, whereas, Conventional Till-Flat Bed method registered the minimum value. The maximum input water productivity under Zero Till-Flat Bed method was due to avoidance of pre sowing irrigation and earlier sowing by about 10 days. Sarkar et al. (2007) reported 17% higher water use efficiency in zero till yellow sarson than that under conventional till crop in Eastern India. Early sowing provided congenial condition favourable for growth and development rhythm of the crop. The higher input water productivity under Conventional Till-FIRB than Conventional Till-Flat Bed method was due to better water economy (irrigation need less by 50mm) and higher yield. Aggarwal and Goswami (2003) reported reduction in irrigation requirement of wheat by 30, 20 and 5%, respectively, during the first, the second and the third irrigation under bed method as compared to conventional method at New Delhi, India. Total water requirement of the crop was reduced by 5cm and yield increased by 0.22 t ha^− 1 under bed method.

Sweet corn

Nutrient management practices exhibited significant difference for input water productivity of sweet corn during 2018-19 only. Application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum input water productivity, being at par with application of 50% STBNR + GM, but significantly superior to application of 100% STBNR only (Table 6). Pooled over seasons, the nutrient management practices exhibited the similar trend as in 2018-19. Application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum sweet corn input water productivity of 66.68 kg green cob ha-mm^-1, being at par with 50% STBNR + GM with input water productivity of 64.59 kg green cob ha-mm^-1. The former and the latter recorded 9.8 and 6.3% higher sweet corn input water productivity, respectively, over 100% STBNR. Residual effects of pre rice green manuring enhanced yield of sweet corn under these two treatments and resulted in higher input water productivity compared to 100% STBNR. Bajpai et al. (2002), Mandal et al. (2003), Singh et al. (2004) and Gautam et al. (2021) reported positive residual effects of pre-rice green manuring on yield of post rice crops. Sweet corn after ‘Manaswini’ rice-toria excelled over sweet corn after ‘Hasanta’ rice-toria during 2019, juxtaposing, the reverse trend was found during the second year. The differences in pooled mean of both years were non-significant. Among establishment methods of post rice crops, Conventional Till-FIRB method recorded the maximum input water productivity of sweet corn and proved significantly superior to other methods during both the years. Exactly the similar trend was recorded in case of pooled results. Conventional Till-FIRB method recorded the maximum sweet corn input water productivity of 87.58 kg green cob ha-mm^-1, registering increase of 67 and 69%, respectively, over Zero Till-Flat Bed and Conventional Till-Flat Bed method due to higher productivity and water economy under the former treatment. Das et al. (2018) reported 29 and 26% higher grain yield in permanent broad bed with (PBB + R) and without residues (PBB), respectively, than conventional tillage (CT) with grain yield of 2.6 t ha^-1. Maize grain yield in the second year under PBB + R and zero tillage with residues (ZT + R) were 55 and 43% higher than CT plots (2.8 t ha^-1). Three-year mean maize yields due to PBB + R and permanent narrow bed with residue (PNB + R) were 28 and 15% higher than CT (3.3 t ha^-1). Das et al. (2018) reported 57 and 19% higher mean water productivity in maize and wheat, respectively, than the plots under PBB + R compared with CT plots.

Kumar et al. (2018) studied the effects of three different tillage practices viz., zero tillage, conventional tillage and bed planting in maize and reported higher yield attributes and yield viz., cobs plant^-1, cob length, grains cob^-1, cob girth, test weight and grain yield under bed method than the other two tillage practices. Hasanain et al. (2021) reported higher grain yield, protein content, protein yield and production efficiency over CT in maize under permanent raised bed (PRB). Residues retention also improved all these characters.

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Among nutrient management practices, application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum system input water productivity during both the years and proved significantly superior to other two nutrient management practices (Fig. 3). Pooled over seasons, application of 75% STBNR + GM recorded the maximum system input water productivity of 9.44 kg REY ha mm^− 1 of input water, registering increases of 8 and 12%, respectively over 50% STBNR + green manuring and 100% STBNR. The superior performance of the treatment was due to direct effect of green manuring on rice and positive residual effects on yield of both toria and sweet corn.

‘Manaswini’ rice-based cropping system recorded significantly higher system input water productivity than ‘Hasanta’ rice-based system during 2018-19. Pooled over the seasons, both were at par. Cropping systems involving Conventional Till-FIRB in toria and sweet corn recorded the maximum system input water productivity during both the years and proved significantly superior to Conventional Till-Flat Bed sowing in 2018-19 and both Conventional Till-Flat Bed and Zero Till-Flat Bed method in 2019-20. Pooled over seasons, Conventional Till-FIRB method recorded the maximum system input water productivity of 9.57 kg REY ha-mm^− 1 of input water, registering increases of 5 and 20%, over Zero Till-Flat Bed and Conventional Till-Flat Bed method, respectively.

Agriculture sector is both the source and sink for greenhouse gases (GHGs). Cultivation practices minimizing GHG emission and maximizing C sequestration are required to arrest the undesirable global warming and climate change. Cleaner production technologies comprising minimization of carbon foot print and water economy are useful for improving soil health and sustaining cropping system productivity. Our study revealed that fertilizer, particularly, N fertilizer contributes to the maximum extent to carbon footprint associated with use of inputs for crop production. Substitution of 25% chemical N with dhaincha green manuring recorded the maximum system rice equivalent yield, input water productivity, C output, carbon efficiency and carbon sustainability index. Use of shorter duration rice variety like ‘Manaswini’ in rice-toria-sweet corn system recorded 4% higher system rice equivalent yield than cv. ‘Hasanta’, but both varieties registered statistically similar input water productivity, C output, CE and CSI. Systems involving CT-FIRB recorded the maximum REY, input water productivity and carbon output, registering marginally higher values than ZT-FB and significantly higher value than CT-FB. Both CT-FIRB and ZT-FB were at par for CE and CSI. Substitution of 25% chemical N by pre-rice green manuring, growing rice variety which provide right sowing window to post rice crops and establishment of post rice toria and sweet corn by CT-FIRB or ZT-FB were carbon efficient, clean and environment friendly technologies for the intensive rice-based system.

Author contributions

StDB, LMG, BB: Conceptualization; StDB, BB, SKS: Data curation; StDB, BB, JJ, SwDB: Formal analysis; StDB, BB: Funding acquisition; StDB, LMG: Investigation; StDB, BB, LMG: Methodology; StDB, LMG, BB: Project administration; LMG, BB: Resources; StDB, LMG, BB: Software; LMG, BB: Supervision; StDB, BB, SKS, SKD: Validation; All: Visualization; StDB, BB, SwDB: Original draft; BB, SKS, SKD: Review & SKS, BB: editing; Finalization: All.

Funding: Financial support was received from Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for executing the research as INSPIRE Fellowship to the first author.

Conflict of Interests: The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Ethical approval: Not applicable.

Consent to participate: Not applicable.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

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Carbon trade-off with crop and water productivity in intensive rice-based cropping system in Eastern India

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Abstract

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Introduction

Materials And Methods

Description of experimental site

Treatment allocation and imposition

Crop management

Water productivity

Carbon dioxide efflux

Carbon budgeting

Data analysis

Results And Discussion

Crop productivity

Rice yield

Toria

Sweet corn

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Carbon indices

Rice

Toria

Sweet corn

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Rainfall, irrigation and input water

Water productivity

Rice

Toria

Sweet corn

Rice-toria-sweet corn system

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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