1.4a New Contributions
Taken together, our results show that fishers, buyers, and traders in the region supply a substantial amount of Indonesia’s MAT exports and that the blue tang provides these participants with the greatest amount of revenue. Together, both the blue tang and yellow goby provide supplemental sources of income that add diversity and flexibility to these fisher, buyer, and trader livelihoods. Thus, the MAT helps buffer these groups from disturbances by adding options to their “livelihood constellation” (Griffith, 2021) thereby supporting their ability to manage change (Marschke & Berkes, 2006; Nayak, Oliveira & Berkes, 2014; Finkbeiner, 2015) while sustaining their well-being (Coulthard, 2012). Our data show how fishers target certain species at particular times of year depending on the weather to support their resilience to natural stressors. We now further examine these results and their management implications.
Fisher, Buyer, And Trader Contribution To The Global Mat
Based on our data, 0.88% of aquarium fish exported from Indonesia to the United States originated from the Banggai region, which is conservative considering we do not present a complete trading network. If this quantity is typical of Indonesian MAT source regions, then this finding suggests there could be as few as 100 key regional hubs across Indonesia that supply the majority of the country’s aquarium fish exports to the United States, the world’s largest importer of marine aquarium fish (Wabnitz et al., 2003; Rhyne et al., 2012; Calado et al., 2014). This is quite remarkable considering that Indonesia is comprised of over 17,000 islands. The Indonesian government could identify the other top source regions and prioritize monitoring reef health and aquarium species populations in these areas, as well as work with MAT fishers to ensure they have access to and training in harvesting methods that are both efficient and sustainable. We also discovered that fishers, buyers, and traders were highly focused in terms of the species they caught, bought, and sold, principally targeting the high-value blue tang, while also, more recently, targeting the lower-value yellow goby, which was not previously known to be sourced from the region (Swanson et al., 2021).
Mat Contribution To Fisher, Buyer, And Trader Livelihood By Species
By identifying that, on average, the MAT contributed 20% of income for fishers participating in the trade, we show that the supplemental income derived from aquarium fish is substantial. Our data show that the blue tang was the primary species traded, providing 87% of total revenue. While a few studies have estimated numbers of fish caught for the MAT (see Lunn & Moreau, 2004; Nañola, Aliño & Carpenter, 2011), limited direct source-level data exist: to our knowledge, this is the first study to quantify both volume and income for the blue tang. This species is of particular interest as it was popularized by the Disney movies Finding Nemo (2003) and Finding Dory (2016). With the release of Finding Dory, conservationists were concerned that the film would increase demand for the blue tang, but subsequent studies did not find evidence (Veríssimo, Anderson & Tlusty, 2020) of this so-called “Nemo effect” (Militz & Foale, 2017). Nevertheless, the blue tang has long been one of the most popular aquarium species and is regularly among the top 20 species by volume imported to the United States (Rhyne et al., 2012, 2017; DiMaggio et al., 2017). The blue tang is widely, but patchily, distributed across the Indian and Pacific Oceans and is listed as a species of Least Concern by the IUCN (McIlwain et al., 2015; Veríssimo, Anderson & Tlusty, 2020). In theory, this means that blue tang collection does not pose an immediate threat to the species in the same way as targeting protected or endemic species, such as the Banggai cardinalfish (Ndobe et al., 2018; Moore, Ndobe & Yasir, 2021).
Nonetheless, catching the blue tang does pose unique challenges. For example, the blue tang is a relatively difficult aquarium species to catch (Swanson et al., 2021). The fish exhibit shy behavior, hiding in coral crevices when approached, and prefer areas with strong currents and deeper water than the Banggai cardinalfish and the yellow goby, which are typically found in sheltered coastal areas 1–5 m deep (Moore et al., 2019; Swanson et al., 2021), clustered around their preferred microhabitats (Kolm et al., 2005). Thus, fishers targeting blue tang often use compressed air disbursed underwater by hoses known as “hookah” lines when diving to catch blue tang, a practice which can pose serious health risks to the diver (Mallon Andrews, 2021; Pauwelussen, 2021). Additionally, fishers often employ neurotoxins such as potassium cyanide (known locally as “potas”) to stun the fish, making them easier to retrieve, as author S.S.S observed in this region. However, these toxic substances are widely considered to pose sustainability issues (Dee et al., 2019), including damaging coral reefs and causing elevated mortality levels of captured fish (Jones & Steven, 1997; Madeira & Calado, 2019).
By contrast, targeting the yellow goby avoids several of the challenges presented by the blue tang, including the need to use neurotoxins to stun the fish, and thus provides another opportunity for fishers with less specialized equipment to earn money catching aquarium fish (Swanson et al., 2021), especially during the relatively strong winds and big swells of the south season, as evidenced by our regression results. Thus, fishers with less capital can catch these fish in shallow coral reef areas protected by mangroves near the source village with a simple, human-powered “sampan” (small wooden canoe), and they do not need a boat engine or a hookah-diving compressor as they do to target blue tang. The yellow goby was also recently found to be the most sustainable aquarium species to catch out of the 72 reef species evaluated by a Productivity Susceptibility Analysis that considers 10 life history attributes and “12 catchability, management, and fishing practice attributes that are location-specific” (Dee et al., 2019, p.2). However, one concern with catching this species in the Banggai Archipelago is the observed behavior of fishers pulling up entire coral heads on which the goby congregate to deposit them more easily into the “serok” net they use to catch the individuals, which is likely to result in the mortality of the coral colony, leading to a decline in live coral cover and habitat niches for coral-associated fish (Swanson et al., 2021). Another caveat is that, while targeting yellow goby may appeal to fishers lacking access to the equipment needed to catch blue tang, other fishers may prefer to focus on blue tang, due to its higher value as well as the adventure and bravado associated with catching species via compressor diving (Pauwelussen, 2021).
Finally, the 25 individual Napoleon wrasse, C. undulatus, that were also caught are informative because they are not usually considered as an aquarium species, although the inclusion of C. undulatus from the Banggai Archipelago in the MAT was reported in 2004 (EC-PREP, 2005). The Napoleon wrasse is typically caught for the live food fish trade, and fishers targeting this species often use cyanide, as they do with blue tang, to catch them live so they can be sold alive from tanks in restaurants at a premium price, mainly in China and Hong Kong (Sadovy, 2005). Our data show that fishers and traders who target aquarium fish will also opportunistically catch this high-value fish despite being part of a different global supply chain because the fish can be caught using similar tools.
Although the mortality information provided by our analysis is limited, it does suggest that at least at this stage in the supply chain, mortality is relatively low (0.8%) compared to later stages in the chain, where mortality is estimated to be over 80% (Rubec, 2001). While this is a drastic difference between reported mortality and mortality estimated in the literature, suggesting that Trader 1 may have underreported mortality, it follows logically that the further up the supply chain, the higher the mortality. Mortality could be higher at later stages of the supply chain due to the fish having been out of their natural habitat for longer and having accumulated stress from each stage of handling, storing, and shipping. Furthermore, exposure to cyanide can result in organ or systemic damage not necessarily apparent over a short time frame after capture but weakening the capacity of the fish to survive cumulative stress and resulting in delayed mortality at later stages (Rubec, 2001; Madeira et al., 2020). Thus, at this first stage of the supply chain, mortality remains comparatively low.
Diversification & Resilience
Our linear regression model revealed that both the blue tang and yellow goby added flexibility in seasons of typically bad weather with strong wind and large swells that can create choppy sea conditions in the region. While these bad weather conditions can vary from island to island (Nakano, 2020), fishers interviewed by author S.S.S. noted two distinct rough weather seasons, “musim utara” or north season, and “musim selatan,” or south season. During these two seasons, strong wind and large swells can make it difficult for fishers to target their primary catch. However, the regression reveals that, on average, fishers and buyers sell a higher number of blue tang and goby during the north season, though the same relationship was not significant for the south season. We hypothesize that this difference is because the locations fishers most often frequent to catch blue tang are largely protected from the north season wind and swell direction, while their locations for other target species (including octopus and squid) are not; thus, they focus energy on catching blue tang. However, during the south season, these blue tang locations are more exposed to the wind and swell, while locations for the yellow goby remain protected. Without both species being accessible during the south season, the statistical relationship becomes non-significant. However, our interaction model showed that blue tang sales decreased in the south season relative to goby sales, suggesting that the yellow goby can continue to provide additional income during this season of rough weather as well.
Taken together, the findings show that each aquarium species contributes uniquely to fisher, buyer, and trader income, especially during poor weather. Thus, the aquarium trade allows fishers and traders to have flexibility to move from specializing during favorable conditions to diversifying during unfavorable conditions (Finkbeiner, 2015). These findings also contribute to understanding how weather influences fisher behavior, a critical and understudied aspect of marine resource management (Thoya & Daw, 2019). Additionally, participant observation showed that fishers with less capital can still access the yellow goby, providing alternative income options for less-resourced individuals participating in the trade. Thus, the aquarium trade represents another option for livelihood diversification, which fishers and family can add to their “livelihood constellations” (Griffith, 2021) or “livelihood landscapes” (Cinner & Bodin, 2010), that also include non-fishing activities observed by author S.S.S, such as boat building or selling local fruits, baked goods, and or handicrafts.
According to the resilience framework outlined by Marschke & Berkes (2005), this added flexibility in the form of additional income that aquarium fishing provides may also enhance fishers capacity to manage future change (Folke, Colding & Berkes, 2003) and sustain well-being (Coulthard, 2012). Such resilience will become increasingly important as climate change continues to affect the region (Moore et al., 2019). Indeed, fishers noted that the year the lead author collected the data reported here, the north season was lasting longer than it had historically (Ferguson, Green & Swanson, 2022), though longitudinal studies of weather patterns should be conducted to determine if these observations hold over time. In addition to potentially providing a buffer to climatic changes, targeting a wider variety of species via the aquarium trade, and thus adding to livelihood sustainability, may also be important for ecological sustainability, by placing less pressure on any one species. However, again more studies need to be conducted to understand the ecological effects of species diversification, as in other small scale fisheries (Finkbeiner, 2015).
One caveat to the added flexibility and diversity provided by the fishery is that greater overall community resilience does not necessarily mean an equitable distribution of and/or access to resources across individuals (Molla, DeIonno & Herman, 2021). This is evidenced by our data; while, on average, fishers & buyers earned about 20% of their income from the aquarium trade, when considering individual earnings the top 10 earners captured more than half of the revenue. Additionally, this income does not directly account for ongoing debt and credit relationships, which may most negatively affect individuals holding less power in the fishery (Miñarro et al., 2016).
Management Implications
Our results demonstrate that weather patterns impact aquarium fish buying and selling; while the blue tang and yellow goby appear to provide a source of income during the rough weather seasons, it could be worth considering how local institutions, both governmental and non-governmental, might provide additional support during these challenging months. One such possibility would be to develop a program disbursing starter kits for eucheumatoid seaweed farming. This activity is a profitable endeavor in which both women and men can participate in the shallow waters directly adjacent the source village. However, not all residents have access to the “seed” to begin farming, so providing a starter kit could help more residents get involved. It should be noted that the seasonal changes in environmental conditions mean that in the Banggai Archipelago, as elsewhere in this region, eucheumatoid seaweed farming is not viable year-round (EC-PREP, 2005; Blankenhorn, 2007; Borlongan et al., 2017; Ndobe et al., 2020). Interestingly, outbreaks of “ice-ice” disease tend to occur in calm weather with little water movement and elevated water temperatures, which aligns with weather that is better for fishing. Therefore, when implementing such a program, seasonality would need to be considered on a site-by-site basis. While this seasonality would align such that fishers could focus on growing seaweed during the north and south seasons when it is more difficult and dangerous for fishers to access their fishing grounds, it also means seasonal lapses in seaweed growth or even total crop losses could occur, which could require accessing new seed stock when conditions become suitable again. Establishing seaweed nurseries in suitable locations and providing seaweed starter kits is just one example of support that government agencies and NGOs could potentially provide during bad weather seasons, and any efforts should be context specific, and equity focused.
This study can also help to inform management of the newly formed Banggai MPA which, while legally formalized, has yet to be enforced in practice. Managers should be cognizant of how the MPA could fuel further inequity through exclusionary and non-consultative practices as seen in numerous other cases across the globe (e.g. Nayak, 2017). This is especially true as areas that are part of the MPA are locations (intentionally not disclosed in this paper) where the fishers target the blue tang as well as the other food fish, octopus, and squid these same fishers also catch. To avoid these pitfalls, a participatory process should be undertaken that engages fishers in the management process in order to develop ownership and agency over the MPA, perhaps in a co-management structure, incorporating lessons learned from MPAs in other parts of Indonesia (e.g. Clifton, 2003; Campbell et al., 2013).
Finally, the comprehensive data we present on fish species, number bought and sold, and contribution to income is critical for developing better modelling of species collection to understand the trade’s impact on wild populations (Militz et al., 2016). Our data can serve as a baseline for the Indonesian government to begin implementing annual population surveys for the blue tang, as are already conducted for the Banggai cardinalfish (Ndobe et al., 2020; Wiadnyana et al., 2020), to ensure that the coral reef ecosystems remain in balance and income from the MAT remains dependable.
1.4b Limitations And Future Research
Although these findings draw from the most comprehensive set of data on blue tang and yellow goby catching, selling, and buying to date, they are not complete. We were unable to obtain complete data from one of the main trading pairs in the region (T03 and T04), though we have partial data from participant B02 frequently selling to these traders. Additionally, the lead author has confirmed that fishers also catch and sell fish to this trading pair from two further out islands, Kasuari and Sonit; those interactions are not captured in this data set. Thus, the numbers presented are a conservative estimate of the total number of fish being sourced from the region.
Additionally, author S.S.S collected data from buyers and traders because intermediary buyers and traders typically keep a record of their sales, whereas most fishers do not. However, collecting data directly from fishers could improve understanding of metrics, including a more complete accounting of mortality at this initial step of the supply chain. Also, the lead author was unable to count each recorded instance of buying and selling to check for accuracy in the numbers reported. She was also unable to ensure that every item was completed for each instance of buying and selling, which resulted in some incomplete data. Thus, data were lacking for locations where fish were caught for intermediary buyer B02, as well as for mortality across the participants’ data, except for Trader 2. In the future, spot checking the numbers of fish recorded could help improve accuracy.
Moving forward, it would be interesting to conduct similar analyses in other known aquarium fish source regions across Indonesia to scale up the quantification of the country’s trade. Such efforts could be modeled after a participatory data collection program run in the Banggai Region from 2008–2012, which was supported by local government agencies (Moore, Ndobe & Zamrud, 2011; Moore et al., 2012). Further quantifying numbers of aquarium fish caught in Indonesia, the world’s second-largest aquarium-fish export country, as well as how they contribute to fisher livelihoods, could help improve international management of this important, yet little understood, trade. Additionally, further investigating the ways that weather influences fisher behavior and livelihoods is critical for developing policies that support fishing families during times of the year when earning income is difficult. Building from the findings of this paper can help ensure that those involved at the earliest stages of the aquarium fish supply chain continue to benefit from the trade in a sustainable manner over the longer-term, moving towards Blue Justice for these fishers, buyers, and traders.