Influence of Online Professional Learning Networks on Teacher Self-Efficacy for Using Information Communication Technology

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2507369/v1

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Influence of Online Professional Learning Networks on Teacher Self-Efficacy for Using Information Communication Technology

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2507369/v1

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Information communication technology (ICT) is increasingly used to enhance teaching and learning, but many teachers lack mastery-level experiences using these computing technologies in the classroom. To further their knowledge, some teachers have turned to online professional learning networks (PLNs) for development, but further research is needed to explore how and why these networks change teachers’ practice. Framed by Albert Bandura's theory of self-efficacy, the purpose of this study was to explore the influence of online PLNs on teachers’ perceptions of their technological self-efficacy for implementing ICT in the classroom. Purposive sampling was used to recruit eight teachers who had contact with an online PLN for over a year. Interview questions were based on Bandura’s four sources of influence for self-efficacy. Results indicate that online PLNs influence teachers’ technological self-efficacy by providing resources, relationships, and problem-solving opportunities. Results present recommendations for future studies with a larger sample across more geographical areas in varying school districts.

teacher professional development

online professional learning networks

PLN

information communication technology

ICT

technological self-efficacy

Information communication technology (ICT) is increasingly used to enhance teaching and learning, but many teachers lack mastery-level experiences using these computing technologies in the classroom. To further their knowledge, some teachers have turned to online professional learning networks (PLNs) for development, but further research is needed to explore how and why these networks change teachers’ practice. This basic qualitative study explored the influence of online professional learning networks (PLNs) on teachers’ technological self-efficacy for implementing information communication technology (ICT) in the classroom. Research shows that teachers are not receiving enough individualized attention to implement ICT confidently into the classroom, leading to a lack of technological self-efficacy (Christie, 2016; Cook et al., 2017; Yin-Chan et al., 2017). To combat the lack of training, some teachers are using online PLNs to stay abreast of continuous changes, particularly regarding ICT (Carpenter et al., 2019; Krutka et al., 2017). There is evidence showing that online PLNs provide teachers with ongoing, personalized, professional development (PD), but further research is needed to explore online PLNs and their influence on teachers’ practice (Carpenter et al., 2019; Tour, 2017b; Trust et al., 2018). This study explored how online PLNs influence US teachers’ technological self-efficacy using ICT.

Background

Research indicates that the provision of traditional PD does not support teachers’ ability to master ICT implementation (Prestridge, 2019). This, in turn, can negatively impact their technological self-efficacy. An online PLN may provide a better avenue to support ICT mastery-level experiences and technological self-efficacy. This is important because ICT has the potential to support learning in engaging ways, transferring knowledge actively rather than passively (Cherner & Curry, 2017; Christensen et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2017). However, ongoing changes in technology and pedagogical strategies, coinciding with the growing pressures for teachers to develop technologically savvy students, have resulted in teachers becoming inundated with demands for continuous professional development (Adjapong et al., 2018; Azorín, 2020; Christie, 2016; Cook et al., 2017; Edwards, 2017; García Espinosa et al., 2015; Hatlevik, 2017; Krutka et al., 2017; Longhurst et al., 2016; Prestridge, 2017). Also, researchers have criticized teacher PD for lack of evidence that it changes teachers’ practice due to its one-size-fits-all approach with little teacher buy-in and poor implementation (Bowe & Gore, 2017; Parsons et al., 2019; Trust, 2016; Trust et al., 2018).

There is evidence showing that these situations are harming teachers and their ability to implement ICT consistently, leading to a gap in teacher and student skill levels (Christie, 2016; Cook et al., 2017; Kwon et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2017; Tilton & Hartnett, 2016; Tour, 2017a; Yildiz Durak, 2019). Online PLNs provide teachers with opportunities to reflect and collaborate, which can increase their technological self-efficacy by building mastery-level experiences, indicating a possible solution to combat the gap in practice (Anders, 2018; Bandura, 1997; Durksen et al., 2017; Greenhow et al., 2019; Hivner et al., 2019; Krutka et al., 2017, 2017; Kwon et al., 2019; Oddone et al., 2019; Prestridge, 2017, 2019; Tilton & Hartnett, 2016).

The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to explore the influence of online PLNs on teachers’ perceptions of their technological self-efficacy for implementing ICT in the classroom. Many teachers lack the confidence to use ICT in the classroom efficiently because of its continuous changes and their lack of mastery-level experiences, requiring further professional growth to develop such skills (Adjapong et al., 2018; Alberth et al., 2018). They have turned to online PLNs because of their ability to create collaborative, anytime, anywhere, informal learning spaces to grow their skill, confidence, and consistency in implementing ICT in the classroom (Kwon et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2017; Tilton & Hartnett, 2016; Yildiz Durak, 2019). Researchers recognize the need for further investigations into how online PLNs influence teachers’ practice (Liu et al., 2018; Tour, 2017a, 2017b; Trust, 2016; Trust et al., 2018).

Conceptual Framework

The study is framed using the contextual lens of social learning and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997). A tenet of social learning is that humans are naturally social, and through social interactions and observations, they develop their behavior (Bandura, 1971). Albert Bandura’s (1997) social cognitive theory suggests that children and adults acquire attitudes, emotions, and behaviors through observing others. Society thus plays a role in shaping individuals’ attitudes and behaviors. An online PLN may serve a similar role in developing teachers’ attitudes and behaviors, thereby changing their teaching practice. Through this channel, teachers can potentially develop their use of ICT from their online PLN, where other teachers share their experiences. With the development of social media and other mass communication tools, users can significantly impact individuals by promoting their views and ideas to audiences across the world by changing social systems (see Bandura, 2002). Bandura contended that there is a cycle of influences between human behaviors, cognition, and environments.

Reflecting this view, Bandura (1986) developed the concept of triadic reciprocal causation, an interplay of cognitive, social, and environmental factors. The environmental and social influences will likely change cognition for humans and, therefore, change their behavior. One of these cognitive changes is described by Bandura’s (1977) theory of self-efficacy, which defines a relationship between human beliefs and motivation. The higher the self-efficacy, the greater the motivation and likelihood to cope with consequences resulting in behavior changes (Bandura, 1977; Hall & Trespalacios, 2019; Hivner et al., 2019). Thus, social networks involving ICT have the potential to change a teacher’s social system and promote their technological self-efficacy, subsequently improving their motivation and attitudes towards ICT.

Teachers often struggle to use ICT consistently in the classroom because of a lack of technological self-efficacy (Christie, 2016; Cook et al., 2017; Kwon et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2017). Online PLNs provide teachers with experiences that can build their confidence and attitudes toward ICT (Edwards, 2017; Prestridge, 2019; Tour, 2017a, 2017b; Trust, 2016; Trust et al., 2018). In this study, participants that used an online PLN were interviewed to determine whether online PLNs influence their perceptions of their technological self-efficacy.

This study's guiding research question was, How do online PLNs influence teachers’ technological self-efficacy for implementing ICT in the classroom? Online PLNs allow teachers to develop their skills, but further research is needed to determine how these experiences influence teachers’ practice (Liu et al., 2018; Tour, 2017a; Trust, 2016; Trust et al., 2018). The purpose of this basic qualitative study with interviews was to explore the influence of online PLNs on teachers’ perceptions of their technological self-efficacy for implementing ICT into the classroom. Therefore, a basic qualitative study with interviews allowed the researcher to better understand how teachers interpret their experiences with online PLNs.

Participant Selection

Purposive sampling was used to identify eight kindergarten to 12th-grade teachers who had at least a year of contact with an online PLN. This subjective method of nonprobability sampling allowed for a knowledgeable sample of the population of teachers who use online PLNs (Lavrakas, 2008). A recruitment email was sent to the study site’s entire school district that contained information on the eligibility criteria. Teachers then responded to the recruitment email indicating their interest and confirming their contact with an online PLN for over a year; a follow-up email was sent inviting them to participate. Teachers were required to respond to the invitation email with “I Consent.” A sample size of 10-12 is most appropriate for this methodology; however, the sample was smaller due to the pandemic and teacher workloads (Burkholder et al., 2016). Data saturation was reached with the smaller sample size and should not jeopardize the validity of the study.

Instrumentation

Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were used, permitting respondents to delve deeper into their experiences with the phenomena (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The interview protocol included questions on teachers’ beliefs, motivation, confidence, and perseverance for implementing ICT in the classroom and whether their online PLN has influenced their technological self-efficacy characteristics (see Table 2). The interview protocol featured questions that prompted participants to provide examples and opinions of their experiences relating to beliefs, motivation, confidence, and perseverance (see Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Each interview was recorded and transcribed for data analysis.

The protocol was developed using the four sources of influence for self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional states (Bandura, 1994). Mastery experiences occur through successes. The more successful endeavors will likely create a stronger belief in self-efficacy, and failure would contribute to the contrary (Bandura, 1994). If people only experience easy successes, they will be more likely to quit due to a lack of perseverance; others who have built resiliency through successes will have a greater desire to persevere. Adversity and setbacks serve as a valuable purpose for building resiliency when developing self-efficacy. Those who overcome and persevere are more likely to have greater self-efficacy and are less likely to fail (Bandura, 1994). Vicarious experiences can also influence self-efficacy.

Vicarious experiences occur through observations. Observing professionals in similar positions who have success through sustained efforts raises the observer's belief that they possess the skills to succeed (Bandura, 1994). The same concept applies to those who observe other professionals' failures, despite their continued efforts, negatively influencing the observer's self-efficacy. Social persuasion also affects self-efficacy; people who have received positive social persuasion that they carry the capabilities to be successful are more likely to have higher self-efficacy than those without persuasion (Bandura, 1994). It is unlikely that social persuasion alone can raise self-efficacy; however, negative social persuasion can quickly diminish self-efficacy. People who have been negatively influenced coincided with challenging outcomes are more likely to fail often (Bandura, 1994). Last, mood can influence personal efficacy; a positive mood will enhance self-efficacy, while a negative mood will diminish self-efficacy. Thus, reducing negative stress reactions and interpreting those reactions positively will result in higher self-efficacy (Bandura, 1994). On the contrary, those who interpret their failures negatively will likely reduce their self-efficacy.

Procedures for Recruitment, Participation, and Data Collection

An email was sent to every educator in the study site’s district. The recruiting email invited teachers to participate in the study if they had used an online PLN for over a year. Teachers who have used a PLN for over a year were selected for the study and were requested to respond to an additional email for consent. For confidentiality, participants were assigned false first names.

Interviews occurred via Zoom and averaged 45 minutes in duration. Interviews began by thanking the participants and explaining that the meeting would be recorded for coding purposes. Participants were also informed to turn off their webcam for confidentiality. Each participant was also informed that they had the right to withdraw from the interview at any point. Once the interviews concluded, the participants were thanked again and explained that they had concluded the interview.

Data Analysis Plan

Two rounds of in vivo coding, followed by thematic analysis were used to analyze the data. The data were also analyzed using NVivo software. The purpose of the study was to explore whether online PLNs influence teachers’ technological self-efficacy. Using in vivo coding, the analysis was grounded from the participants' perspective by using the language of the participants rather than the researcher’s (Saldaña, 2016). Data analysis methods aligned with the study's purpose to explore participants’ experiences with online PLNs (see Saldaña, 2016). The second cycle of in vivo coding allowed for reanalysis, permitting further refinement of the codes resulting in potential categories to delve deeper into the data (Saldaña, 2016). NVivo software then allowed for further data engagement to contribute to the study's confirmability by using word frequencies to compare the results against the categories discovered during in vivo analysis (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Discrepant case analysis was also used to rule out alternative explanations for participants’ experiences.

The research question guiding this study was, How does the use of online PLNs influence teacher perception of their technological self-efficacy in implementing ICT instructional practices in the classroom? The interview protocol’s questions prompted participants to describe experiences and opinions regarding beliefs, motivation, confidence, and perseverance for implementing ICT in the classroom and whether their online PLN influenced their technological self-efficacy characteristics (see Table 1). Table 2 provides an overview of the themes and codes that emerged from data analysis. The table also includes illustrative participant quotations.

Resources

The first theme is resources, which is defined as teachers sharing resources and receiving encouragement to use ICT in the classroom. The following categories were related to the theme resources: including resources, resource sharing, and encouragement. Participants were asked how their online PLN influenced their use of ICT in the classroom, their ICT obstacles, and how their online PLN influenced their ability to overcome such obstacles. Every participant in the study described experiences where their online PLN provided them with resources. For example, Participant 7 stated that her online PLN provides her with “ideas, other teachers share of the resources that have worked for them, so that I have an idea of what I’m doing.” Participant 2 said, “I find the resources, but they also demonstrate how to use them. I would normally shy away from it. So, by having that group, it's kind of nice that they show you and they kind of take you through things a little step by step.” In addition, Participant 6 talked about not only receiving resources that her peers shared but also “knowing that I can share my resources and my learning, you know, pictures of student work or something that I'm excited about that my students are doing.” Participant 5 mentioned that his online PLN “brings my attention to resources that I may not know exists on my own or may not be able to find.”

In addition to resource sharing, members of the participants' online PLN provided encouragement to overcome obstacles and provided explanations on how to best use specific ICT tools in the classroom. Participant 1 explained that she feels less alone “because I’m excited about overcoming the obstacle of delivering instruction online, different ways to gather information that was going to make teaching online less scary for both teachers and students.” Participant 3 stated that their online PLN is “where I do not just find the resources, but they also demonstrate how to use them.” Participant 2 had experiences where her online PLN “led everybody else to be more comfortable in using either a particular platform or a particular strategy.” Participant 8 also mentioned that she taught her entire year based on a strategy she learned through her online PLN, stating, “That was when I first saw Bitmoji virtual classroom was on a Facebook music Facebook group. And also a course that went into how we were able to teach. This entire last year was using that foundation of that classroom.” Encouragement also occurs when teachers see relevant resources and utilize those resources to implement ICT.

In all, every participant described experiences overcoming obstacles and receiving resources or ideas to help implement ICT into the classroom. These experiences indicated that their online PLN provided them with a better belief system to use ICT in the classroom and provide encouragement, indicating an increase in their technological self-efficacy. For example, Participant 3 said their online PLN “has influenced me to try new things” and “take risks with technology in the classroom” due to the conversations taking place within their online PLN as well as the encouragement from members. Participant 8 stated about her online PLN, “ It's just been a great resource of people asking questions… And, you know, people using like the same programs and then they ran into an issue. And it saves me from having to run into that issue like I could fix it in advance.”

One participant, referring to themselves as an observer, had experiences where she utilized her online PLN for shared resources, which encouraged her to implement ICT and influenced her technological self-efficacy, even though she rarely contributes to the conversations. She explained, “but what we've been able to find out from Facebook and Instagram, and some of them, the learning possibilities through Canvas, it has been very helpful.” She also explained, “Even on Instagram and Facebook, there's a lot of camaraderie support from other teachers, and it just has been a huge influence.” Indicating that, even though she rarely contributes to the conversations, she benefits from others having conversations that offer her support and encouragement, changing her beliefs regarding ICT and influencing her technological self-efficacy.

Relationships

The second theme is relationships related to the categories connections, feedback, and collaboration. Participants were asked what kind of experiences they had with members of their online PLN, encouraging them to use ICT in the classroom. Three participants talked about “not feeling alone” and turning to their online PLN for support and feedback. For example, Participant 6 said, “I'm catching everything that some of the younger teachers already know. I think the biggest thing is knowing that I'm not alone.” Indicating the participant had experiences where she built connections through her online PLN that supported her use of ICT in the classroom, which developed a positive attitude towards ICT.

These connections also lead to discussions relating to troubleshooting issues. For example, Participant 3 discussed the encouragement they received, stating she often turns to online PLN to “troubleshoot if you need help trying out something new, and it's been encouraging just like to have the extra support and taking risks in the classroom.” In terms of the first category of connections, participants indicated that they have built relationships with members of their online PLN and often refer to them for troubleshooting technological issues in the classroom. For example, Participant 8 mentioned, “if I have an issue, I can turn to the group and see if others have a similar experience.” All participants mentioned having experiences where they could turn to their online PLN to help with issues; however, one participant stated that she typically would search through the group discussion threads to allocate resources to help with troubleshooting. These connections build relationships that positively influence the participants’ attitudes and beliefs regarding ICT.

In addition, all the participants have turned to their online PLN for support in troubleshooting, but five of the eight participants have shared their failures while looking for support from other members. A sign of collaboration and development of deep connections with members, for example, Participant 1 expressed the following: “Again I could you know I would throw it out to the group hey I tried this. This was the obstacle today, but I think it has potential, you know, can somebody help with what might you know why it might have gone wrong or how to make it better.” Participant 2 indicated some of her online PLN members offer “small tweaks to make something go smoother or, better, you know it might not have been the technology that was the problem, it could have been the delivery.” Such experiences show deep connections of trust to seek feedback and reflection from their peers, which positively influences teachers’ technological self-efficacy (Yoo, 2016). Three participants mentioned “not feeling alone,” and another said, “it is not like you’re here by yourself” because of their PLN.

Three participants were more active in building deep relationships as they turned to their online PLN for not just support, encouragement, or troubleshooting, but they shared their instructional failures. These connections created through their online PLN provide them with feedback at a greater level than receiving support. They collaborate to make their instruction more efficient using ICT, which indicates trust and significantly impacts teachers’ technological self-efficacy by building their belief system around ICT. For example, Participant 4 explained her online PLN is “always reminding each other that it's okay and that you will share your failures. Your first attempt in learning, and let others learn from those and let yourself learn from those.” Participant 8 had similar experiences regarding what she shared with her online PLN, stating, “you used a piece of technology, and it wasn't successful.” These experiences where teachers feel comfortable sharing their teaching failures with their online PLN indicated they had built deep connections with other members, positively influencing their technological self-efficacy.

Confidence

Participants expressed through collaboration that they problem-solve and offer support to other users, which positively influences their confidence in using ICT in the classroom. Participant 7 mentioned, “support them and tell them not to worry about it and that it will become more comfortable for them,” indicating that they have confidence toward ICT. Still, they also offer the support to help others gain the same confidence. All participants in this study mentioned receiving encouragement in using ICT in the classroom because of their experiences with their online PLN. Participants build trust with members when they use the resources allocated from members within the network, which builds their confidence in implementing ICT in the classroom. For example, Participant 5 stated, “if someone had a good experience enough to share it out to the world, then I would think I'm more apt to try it on my own.”

Another participant, when discussing implementing software to accommodate musical recordings for large groups of students, Participant 6 stated, “definitely made it quicker in Twitter to implement things or like easier to bring something into the classroom. Instead of me having to try it out on my own and figure everything out I can, I can talk with those people are I can read about their experience or watch a video on their experience and then immediately see the benefits of it.” Participants’ trust in members of their online PLN helped them develop their confidence to implement ICT in the classroom. Trust permitted participants to implement ICT because another member of their network successfully implemented the technology, but the ease of access also helped their confidence to implement ICT. Both trust and ease of access positively influenced attitudes and beliefs regarding ICT.

Three of the eight participants mention that they turn to their online PLN for problem-solving because it is faster and more efficient to find solutions to their ICT problems. Problem-solving should not be confused with support, as problem-solving requires some form of collaboration among members of their online PLN. When participants problem-solve with their PLN, they indicated that they had more confidence to persevere and continue using ICT in the classroom. For example, when struggling with student self-portraits, one teacher turned to their PLN and immediately got the answer she needed and stated, “yeah, so there was one member who was showing examples of students self-portraits that they used in Google draw, and it kind of was step by step of how they did it within their classroom on a large scale, because that's easy to do with individual students, which I had done in the past, but to apply it to a whole class or a whole grade level, with the members support, it was good.” Two other participants mentioned problem-solving as well. Participant 4 immediately turns to her online PLN whenever she has an issue with ICT, stating, “I often search that on in the closed wall Facebook group search feature, seeing if other people had that similar problem. Of course, helping others out too, commenting on, you know, a question that was already posted.” Both experiences created opportunities for participants to collaborate with their online PLN resulting in greater confidence in using ICT in the classroom.

Resources

Teachers are turning to online PLNs because they are actively seeking PD opportunities for ICT outside of traditional PD formats (Prestridge, 2017). These educators are creating PLNs so that they can create additional professional development opportunities to grow their teaching skills by staying abreast of best practices and trends in the developments of education and technology (Dene Poth, 2020; Greenhow et al., 2019; Krutka et al., 2017; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Trust, 2017). All participants turned to their online PLN to find resources to help them implement ICT in the classroom. Due to the expansion of social media, PLNs can provide teachers with immediate access to instructional materials (García-Martínez et al., 2020; Goria et al., 2019; Greenhow et al., 2019; Noble et al., 2016; Tour, 2017a), which enhances teachers' understanding of instructional strategies (Kearney et al., 2020; Noble et al., 2016; Tour, 2017a). Participants reported turning to their online PLN because of instant access to materials, resources, and professionals to improve their skills (Greenhow et al., 2019; Krutka et al., 2017; Krutka et al., 2016; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Noble et al., 2016; Oddone et al., 2019; Prestridge, 2019; Trust, 2017). Sharing information can benefit teachers holistically by increasing the knowledge base and enhancing the profession, indicating increased skill development for participants (Krutka et al., 2016; Prestridge, 2019).

Three participants, veteran teachers, indicated that their online PLN makes them feel less alone and that technology is less scary because they can use the resources within their online PLN. Participant 8 taught an entire year using a piece of technology she found via her online PLN. All participants also indicated that they received encouragement to overcome obstacles while using ICT. PLNs also encourage a sense of connectedness (Cook et al., 2017; Forbes, 2017; Goria et al., 2019) and empowerment (García-Martínez et al., 2020). This process of discussing, sharing, collaborating, and reflecting helps teachers grow professionally (Noble et al., 2016; Slagoski, 2019).

The theme of resources confirms the existing research showing that teachers who use online PLNs seek support from other teachers by utilizing these networks for resources. Through this process, participants built trust with other members of their network in that they trust such members and the resources they share. Trust was also built when participants received encouragement to overcome obstacles to implement ICT in the classroom, confirming existing research. Trust also influenced their attitudes toward ICT and positively influenced their technological self-efficacy.

Relationships

All participants had experiences where they built trust with members of their online PLN as they used their online PLN to gather resources and seek encouragement for overcoming obstacles. Extensive research shows that when teachers collaborate with others in similar situations, it helps boost their beliefs regarding their ability to use ICT in the classroom, permitting them to become more engaging educators and to reflect on their instructional practices (Adjapong et al., 2018; Goria et al., 2019; Greenhow et al., 2019; Kearney et al., 2020; Kearney & Maher, 2019; Krutka et al., 2017, 2017; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Nicholas et al., 2018; Slagoski, 2019; Trust, 2017). The process of discussion and interaction leads to collective thinking and the development of new knowledge (Forbes, 2017; Krutka et al., 2017; Parsons et al., 2019). For example, Participant 3 stated, “peers working together to figure out how to navigate ICT, and by doing so, it wasn't everybody having to recreate the wheel.”

The relationships participants built developed a sense of connectedness, which forced a greater understanding of pedagogy and instructional strategies (see Kearney et al., 2020; Krutka et al., 2016; Parsons et al., 2019). For example, Participant 4 explained, “putting the objectives with that technology, not just using technology for the sake of technology.” Participant 6 stated, “I think I'm good with Google, and the know-how of Google, but when is it appropriate when is it best to implement and have students engage with the technology versus engaging in a different manner.” Both are examples of participants having a greater understanding of using ICT to support pedagogical strategies because of their collaborations within their online PLN.

Three participants indicated that they feel less alone because of the support and encouragement they receive from their online PLN, even though all participants reported turning to their online PLN for resources and support to best-implementing ICT. All participants used their online PLN to find solutions to issues with ICT as they all had experiences where their online PLN helped them overcome adversity for using ICT. However, five of the eight participants shared failures in which they sought support to resolve ICT issues from members of their online PLN, while three participants engaged in collaborative problem-solving. For example, Participant 4 had an experience where she turned to her online PLN to seek support using Photoshop: “I was having a negative experience in photoshop, they were working in the same version they knew like a trick to help me that I didn't know.” These experiences indicate that participants reflected on their teaching, which is essential to change teachers’ practice and developing their skills (Krutka et al., 2016; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Nicholas et al., 2018; Noble et al., 2016; Parsons et al., 2019; Prestridge, 2017). All instances indicate that participants have developed trust with their online PLN, influencing their belief system and perseverance for using ICT in the classroom. These digital connections are permitting teachers to create personalized, bottom-up, active learning experiences that facilitate communication beyond the borders of the school district (Cook et al., 2017; Forbes, 2017; Greenhow et al., 2019; Kearney et al., 2020; Prestridge, 2017; Slagoski, 2019; Trust, 2017).

The theme of relationships confirms existing research regarding online PLNs and the relationships in which teachers create. Participants used these networks to gather resources that developed a sense of trust and connectedness with other members, particularly the five participants who sought feedback regarding their teaching and not just ICT support. When participants created these relationships, it influenced their belief system regarding ICT and influenced their technological self-efficacy.

Confidence

Teachers have extended time to experiment and collaborate through PLNs (Edwards, 2017; Krutka et al., 2016, 2017), which also increases motivation (Goria et al., 2019), generates new ideas for teaching (Kearney & Maher, 2019; Krutka et al., 2016; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Noble et al., 2016; Parsons et al., 2019), and increases confidence (Krutka et al., 2016; Noble et al., 2016; Prestridge et al., 2019). For example, Participant 3 stated, “when somebody figured out and was able to troubleshoot. You know, whatever the area was depending on the group, then that led everybody else to be more comfortable, I think in using either a particular platform or a particular strategy with students.” Participant 2 had an experience that, through collaborating with her online PLN, she developed the confidence to implement multiple Google Meets to accommodate smaller group discussions. She stated, “And I was comfortable enough in trying it through some discussions with some other folks.” All participants used their online PLN for resources and built relationships with members. Five participants collaborated to solve problems, and three created deeper connections where they sought feedback from their peers. Through these relationships, participants had opportunities to develop their confidence to use ICT in the classroom. If their implementation was not efficient, participants turned to their online PLN and sought assistance. Participants indicated that their PLN is where they can celebrate their classroom successes and discuss their failures (Krutka et al., 2016; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018). This process confirmed existing research that when teachers have time to experiment and collaborate through their online PLN, it increases their motivation and confidence, which generates new ideas for teaching, and turns teachers into lifelong learners (Edwards, 2017; Goria et al., 2019; Greenhow et al., 2019; Kearney & Maher, 2019; Krutka et al., 2017; Krutka et al., 2016; Lantz-Andersson et al., 2018; Nicholas et al., 2018; Noble et al., 2016; Prestridge, 2019) and positively influences their technological self-efficacy.

Recommendations

Recommendations for future studies include using a different conceptual framework to study how and why online PLNs influence teachers’ practice. Connectivism argues that learning occurs through developing social and informational networks, both voluntary and involuntary, through self-directed, informal learning, based on opinions developed through relationships, work experience, education, personal interests, and culture (Paulin & Gilbert, 2018; Siemens, 2005). This conceptual framework may provide additional insights into how or why online PLNs influence teachers’ practice.

Replicating the study to include teachers worldwide or in different parts of the US would be another suitable avenue for additional research. Online PLNs are challenging to study because they are unique and personalized. A larger sample to include other demographics, such as geographical areas, would be appropriate. It would be interesting to see how elementary or secondary teachers use online PLNs. Another recommendation would be a comparative study using correlation or control groups to compare online PLN users to those who do not use online PLNs against their use of technology. This study recognized “observers” within online PLNs who experienced increased technology self-efficacy. A study comparing more active users within their network to those who are less active or comparing those active users to nonusers could provide additional insights into online PLNs and how they influence teachers’ practice. Further, online PLNs offer a platform for teachers to develop professionally but gaining a deeper understanding of their effectiveness, based on the frequency in which users interact, can also help provide additional insights into the phenomena.

Implications

The study results indicate that online PLNs can influence teachers’ technological self-efficacy and provide them with resources to build relationships and problem-solve when using ICT in the classroom. PLNs provide teachers with many resources and opportunities to receive support and encouragement from other network members who positively influence their beliefs and attitudes toward ICT. They also allow teachers to collaborate, problem-solve, and develop deep connections that build confidence for using ICT in the classroom. Online PLNs also allow teachers to reflect, an indicator of teacher PD, positively influencing their technological self-efficacy. The themes indicate that these networks can change social systems, as noted by Bandura (2001). As technology continues to develop and instructional strategies for using such change, teachers need to stay abreast of these changes to remain effective in the classroom. This research could provide leaders of school districts with concrete evidence that online PLNs can influence teachers’ technological self-efficacy, permitting school administrators to encourage teachers to develop such networks. The study can potentially influence preservice programs and teacher PD programs by changing how teachers receive annual PD.

Technology will continue to change, but teachers’ responsibilities to educate our youth will not. We must continue researching teaching strategies, technology, learning and development, and administrative procedures, as our schools are essential to our future success. Online PLNs have permitted teachers to go beyond their geographical boundaries to learn and support their colleagues. The purpose of this study was to explore online PLNs and their influences on teachers’ technological self-efficacy. The results provide concrete evidence that these networks influence a teacher’s practice. This study confirms the benefits of PLNs and builds on existing research discovering how they influence a teacher’s practice. School administrators should encourage teachers to develop online PLNs to help them stay abreast of the changes in technology and encourage the development of resources, relationships with other teachers, and confidence.

The authors do have relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose nor competing interests to declare. Additionally, the authors do have any financial interests or affiliations with organizations seeking financial interest regarding this manuscript. The authors of this manuscript did not receive funding to conduct the study nor assistance from an organization to prepare the study.

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Table 1: Interview Protocol

Questions	Four main sources of influence
	Mastery experiences	Vicarious experiences		Social persuasion			Emotional states
How has your online PLN influenced your use of ICT in the classroom? New technologies?	X		X		X			X

What has been your biggest obstacle using ICT in the classroom? How has your online PLN influenced your ability to overcome obstacles for implementing ICT in the classroom? What conversations have you had with colleagues, in person or digital, regarding ICT obstacles?	X

What experiences using ICT do you share with members of your online PLN? What experiences do you share using ICT? What kind of experiences using ICT do users within your online PLN share?	X	X

Describe any experiences where members of your online PLN encouraged you to use ICT in the classroom.				X

Describe any experiences of members of your online PLN promoting the development of skills for using ICT in the classroom.				X		X

Note. PLN = professional learning network; ICT = information communication technology

Table 2. Technological Self-Efficacy Themes

Theme	Category of codes	Quotes from participants
Resources	resources resource sharing encouragement	“led everybody else to be more comfortable in using either a particular platform or a particular strategy” “it has influenced me to try new things” “take risks with technology in the classroom” “overcome obstacles”

Relationships	connections feedback collaboration troubleshooting	“small tweaks to make something go smoother or, better, you know it might not have been the technology that was the problem, it could have been the delivery” “not feeling alone” “it is not like you’re here by yourself”

Confidence	problem solving observers support confidence	“support them and tell them not to worry about it and that it will become more comfortable for them” “So do they encourage you saying hey, this is an excellent tool with this” "you know I want to be relevant in the classroom I don't want to be that person that students are like oh yeah they're still doing things that my parents did in school"

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Influence of Online Professional Learning Networks on Teacher Self-Efficacy for Using Information Communication Technology

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