A Systematic Review of the Impacts of Oil Spillage on Residents of Oil-Producing Communities in Nigeria

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2564019/v1

Oil spillage is common in oil-producing communities of Nigeria and it impacts negatively on the lives of the residents of these communities. This study analysed available research data on oil spillage incidents in these communities to determine the main causes of the spillage and its impacts on the residents. A systematic review of published studies was carried out and 20 studies were identified from the literature search. The main causes of oil spills were identified as sabotage, oil theft, illegal refining, mystery spill, operational failures, and corrosion. Over 70% of the spillages were discovered to be as a result of sabotage by restive youths. Oil spillage was found to impact on the health, source of livelihood, food security, basic amenities, and socio-economic state of the residents. The major interventions were initiated by multinational companies and were targeted at improving health services, education, infrastructure, skill acquisition, and employment, which will in turn reduce the occurrence of violence, insurgency, and human trafficking in the oil-producing communities. This study highlights the immediate and long-term consequences of oil spills on the residents of oil-host communities in Nigeria. The causes of the spills were attributed mainly to the inaction of government regulatory agencies in oil exploration. Thus, it is recommended that government regulatory agencies should be revamped and repositioned to effectively perform their duties. Interventions should be targeted at addressing the causes of the agitation of the indigenes by involving them in the decision-making process. Also, an appropriate remediation strategy should be adopted to clean up the oil spills.

Oil spillage

oil-host communities

sabotage

health impact

Oil and gas industry remains the backbone of the Nigerian economy since it contributes over 90% of its revenues and about 45% of its GDP (Akinlo, 2012; Ekeghe, 2022). Elum et al. (2016) suggested that Nigeria’s economic and political fortunes are strongly linked to crude oil. Thus, one can assume that without crude oil, the Nigerian economy might crumble.

Presently, crude oil is produced in nine Southern States of Nigeria (Ejechi, 2022) and the federal government and select multinational companies are vested with the power to explore this resource. Thus, the oil-producing states and oil-host communities have little or no say in the crude-oil exploration decision-making process (Elum, 2016). However, this might change with the Petroleum Industry Act (PIA) which was recently signed into law. Currently, little attention is being paid to the resultant detrimental impacts of such exploration ventures on the oil-producing communities in Nigeria. The environmental degradation of the ecosystem has resulted in widespread poverty and deprivation of resource advantages in the oil host communities (Elum, 2016). This has given rise to resentments of policies of the federal government by the residents, resulting in several cases of civil disturbance in the region (Apata, 2010).

Environmental disasters in the oil and gas sector in Nigeria are caused mainly by technological and/or human challenges and have significant immediate and protracted implications on the impacted population. Over the years, incidents of oil spillage have become very frequent, with little or no actions being taken by the stakeholders to bring succour to the residents of the impacted areas. Available data show that over 9,500 cases of oil spillage occurred in Nigeria from 2011 to 2021, and it is estimated that about 450,000 barrels of oil were released into the environment (Akinpelu, 2021). Oil spillage significantly impacts residents of the oil-producing states in Nigeria, causing unmeasurable and dehumanising pains and anguish to the inhabitants of the area, as the individuals can no longer invest in their traditional fishing, agricultural production, and hunting activities (Chijioke et al., 2018). Thus, the previously economically and environmentally productive Niger Delta region (comprising five of the nine oil producing States of Nigeria) has been subjected to substantial soil pollution, deforestation, toxic discharges into available water sources, biodiversity loss, as well as recurring and extensive oil spills (Owugah, 2006; Chijioke et al., 2018; Akinpelu, 2021). As a result, it has been globally designated as one of the five highest viciously crude oil-impacted environments.

The resultant devastating ecological damages caused by oil spillage in these oil-producing communities have made most of the farmlands uncultivable. Chijioke et al. (2018) in a review opined that farmers have been compelled to evacuate their properties due to increasing soil sterility caused by the depletion of soil microbes and diminishing crop yields, in search of unavailable sources of living. Asides from the loss of arable land, food insecurity and poverty have been worsened due to the widespread pollution of traditional fishing areas, which has decimated fish populations (Duru, 2010).

It is obvious that oil spillage has ruined the subsistence economic activities of the indigenes of these oil-producing communities. The situation is so bad that even the drinking water sources have been polluted, agricultural and fishing operations have been hampered, and the ecology of the region is fast deteriorating. This situation was succinctly captured by Chijioke et al., (2018), with reports of the region being plagued with a variety of environmental and humanitarian crises. As reported by Moneke et al. (2022), the air in the region is also affected with an increased incidence of respiratory ailment among residents at a pooled prevalence of 43%. The health and well-being of the residents of these oil-polluted environments are also directly affected (Moneke et al., 2022), with residents of the oil producing communities in Niger Delta having higher prevalence of respiratory illness when compare to non-oil producing communities in Nigeria.

Although crude oil should be a natural gift and blessing to any region, it has proven to be a plague to the oil-hosting communities of Nigeria due to the negative impacts of oil spillage. Oviasuyi and Uwadiae (2010) attributed this to the non-action of the government and its alleged regulatory laxity in the region. It begs the question of what the Federal and State governments and other government regulatory authorities are doing to bring succour to the residents of these regions. The extent of poverty and environmental degradation in this region highlights the ineffectiveness of government interventions.

The negative impacts of oil exploitation on the economic and social well-being of the residents of oil-producing communities were investigated. This systematic review was aimed at critically evaluating the negative impacts of crude oil spillage on the oil facilities hosting communities and the government interventions deployed to mitigate them. It is hoped that the findings from this study will bring to the fore the sufferings of residents of oil-producing communities in Nigeria due to oil spillage in their communities.

This systematic review assessed and synthesized research data that have been reported on the impacts of crude oil spillage on the host communities and the ensuing government interventions to mitigate them. The study’s methodology was structured to answer the following research questions: Did crude oil spillage impact the host community? What was the cause attributed to the spillage? Did the government try to intervene, and what was the form of intervention?

A literature search was conducted on eight different academic databases (Scopus, PubMed, CORE, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science Direct, and African Journals Online). Using the study eligibility criteria, the publications were filtered to exclude irrelevant articles. This systematic literature review followed the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) standards (Page et al., 2021).

2.1. Search strategy and PICO model

The importance of a search strategy to meet the research objective was highlighted by Aveyard et al. (2016). The search strategy should be predefined and flexible to enable the identification of relevant publications from the selected database. The Patient/Problem, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) model used in systematic reviews was used to develop the search keywords (Methley et al., 2014). The PICO model technique used for this study is outlined in Table 1.

Table 1

The PICO Model
Population	Residents of oil-host communities which have been impacted by crude oil spillage
Intervention	Enacted policies to mitigate the incidence of crude oil spillage in Nigeria
Control	Residents of non-impacted regions of crude oil host communities
Outcome	Health impact, environmental impact, food security impact

The Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used to perform this study (Moher et al. 2009; Higgins et al., 2022). The PRISMA guideline includes a 27-item checklist designed to help in the transparency and thorough reporting of a systematic review (Higgins et al., 2022). It is a simple collection of evidence-based elements meant to aid scientific authors in providing a wide range of systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Liberati et al. 2009).

2.2. Study eligibility criteria

Predefined study eligibility criteria were developed for this systematic review as shown in Table 2. Studies that were not focused on oil pollution/spillage in host communities and those that did not report any interventions were eliminated. The study did not include materials that were mostly conference papers, case studies, government publications, news, commentary, and grey literature. The papers considered were empirical peer-reviewed study findings published in English and reported for Nigeria's oil-producing areas. The target population was restricted to those who had been directly affected by the oil disaster.

Table 2

Study Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
All research which was conducted in Nigeria shall be included in this systematic review	Studies focused on crude oil spillage in non-oil hosting communities.
Studies conducted from 2003 to December 31st, 2022	Studies which did not highlight the impact/effect of oil spillage on oil-hosting communities.
Studies reporting on crude oil spillage in oil host communities	Studies with incoherent and non-reproducible methodology with ambiguous results
Studies reporting on the impact or effect of these oil spillages on residents of oil-host communities	Studies which did not address interventions to mitigate the incidence of crude oil spillage in oil-host communities.
Studies with a clear and reproducible method and clear results	Review journals, systematic reviews and meta-analyses, book chapters, editorials, and conference proceedings.
Studies reporting on policy interventions to mitigate the incidence of crude oil spillage in oil host communities.
Studies reporting on Nigerian or foreign government's interventions to remediate crude oil spillages at oil-hosting communities
Studies with a sample size of ≥ 10
Studies with quality assessments of ≥ 5
Research published in the English Language
Peer-reviewed research journals

2.3. Data sourcing strategy

Two independent investigators conducted a thorough electronic search on eight (8) academic databases (Scopus, PubMed, CORE, Semantic Scholar, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Science Direct, and African Journals Online) for relevant research articles written in English and published between January 1, 2003, and December 31st, 2022. As demonstrated in Table 3, wide search string criteria were utilized for the literature search to ensure inclusivity, with distinct MeSH search strings for each database. Grey literature and published article reference lists were also reviewed for additional publications to boost sensitivity and inclusion.

Table 3

Study Search terms and keywords
Database	#	Search terms
Scopus	#1	(TITLE-ABS-KEY (“oil spill*" OR "crude oil spills" ) AND ALL ( impacts OR effects OR "health impacts" OR "Environmental impacts" ) AND ALL ( interventions OR policies OR "oil spills responses interventions" OR "oil spills responses policies" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( "oil producing communities" OR "oil host communities" OR "Niger Delta" ) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY ( Nigeria ) ) AND PUBYEAR > 1969 AND PUBYEAR > 1969
PubMed	#1	"Health impacts" OR "Health risks" OR "public health issues"
	#2	"Crude oil spill" OR "oil spill"
	#3	Nigeria
	#4	#1 AND #2 AND #3
CORE	#1	Causes and effects of crude oil spills in Nigeria Refine Type: Research
Semantic Scholar	#1	“Causes OR impacts AND crude oil spills AND Oil spill intervention OR oil spill policies AND oil host communities OR oil producing communities AND Nigeria”
Google Scholar	#1	"Oil spill" OR "Petroleum spill" AND "causes" AND effect AND "spill* response intervention" OR "spill* response policy" OR "remediation" AND "oil host communities" OR "oil producing communities" AND Nigeria
Google Scholar	#2	"Oil spill" OR "Petroleum spill" AND "causes" AND effects AND Nigeria Limiter Custom range: 1979 to 2022
Web of Science	#1	((((((((TS=(oil spill)) OR AB=(petroleum spill))) AND TS=(impact)) AND TS=(oil host communities)) OR TS=(oil producing communities)) AND TS=(interventions)) OR TS=(remediation policies)) AND TI=(Nigeria)
Science Direct	#1	Find articles with these terms: causes and impact of oil spills in oil host communities in Nigeria Limiters Published Date: 1970–2022
Science Direct	#2	Find articles with these terms: Intervention policies of oil spills in oil host communities of Nigeria Limiters Published Date: 1970–2022
African Journals Online	#1	Causes and impacts of oil spillages in oil-producing regions of Nigeria
African Journals Online		Interventions of oil spillages in Nigeria

Two reviewers individually evaluated the titles and abstracts of retrieved papers from the various databases. After a thorough review, all search results were imported into EndNote (a reference manager), and any duplicates were immediately eliminated. For a more thorough screening, the entire texts of possibly relevant papers were retrieved.

A check of the retained texts references was also done to discover eligible research and publications that may have been excluded. Two reviewers separately reviewed all retained publication texts using predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria, as given in Table 2, and any resulting conflicts were handled by a third reviewer.

2.4. Quality assessment of included studies

The Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) instrument was used to assess the study's quality and critically examine the research evidence (CASP, 2020). This method is useful for confirming research findings by assessing their relevance to the systematic review.

2.5. Extraction of Data

The search results were thoroughly scrutinized to analyse the overall findings (Biggam, 2009). The framework of the data analysis begins with a description of the data, followed by a wide presentation of the search results as indicated by Biggam (2009), allowing search results to be compared, contrasted, and assessed. The data; the title of the study, the author(s), the research year, the location, the research objectives, participants, sample size, methodology, findings, and recommendations, for each study were extracted onto an excel sheet. A second reviewer scrutinised the data to ensure accuracy, and any resulting disagreement was resolved by a third independent party.

The results from the selected studies were merged and linked to identify a pattern using a narrative synthesis approach. This was achieved by translating the results from individual studies across each other and they were grouped based on areas of commonality.

3.1 Study selection

The PRISMA flowchart in Fig. 1 highlights the number of retrieved publications, and the steps taken for selecting the studies used in this review. The database search found 2,283 articles (Scopus = 68 records, PubMed = 3 records, CORE = 117 records, Semantic Scholar = 386 records, Web of Science = 18, ScienceDirect = 647 records, African journal online = 1,044 records). An additional search using google scholar returned 367 articles. That brought the total number of identified records to 2,650. A total of 45 duplicates were removed after the identification of the research papers and 2,494 articles were excluded after the screening of the titles and abstract. The excluded records were ineligible for reviewing works on oil spillage, did not have empirical research data, and did not report on the impact of the oil spillage on communities. After the eligibility assessment, 20 research papers met the criteria for this systematic review.

3.2 Study characteristics

Table 4 shows the characteristics of the included studies. A total of twenty publications met the inclusion criteria for this study and were used in this systematic review (Inoni et al., 2006; Eni & Okpiliya, 2011; Brown & Tari, 2015; Ezejimofor et al., 2016; Nriagu et al., 2016; Zabbey & Tanee, 2016; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018; Osuagwu & Olaifa 2018; Obida et al., 2018; Olalekan et al., 2018; Albert et al., 2019; Mba et al., 2019; Ilevbare and Idemudia, 2019; Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020; Akinwumiju et al., 2020; Amusa et al., 2021; Oghenetega et al., 2022; Crayton & Naher, 2022).

All the included studies were conducted and focused on oil-hosting producing states in Nigeria. Thirteen of the studies were conducted in the Niger Delta region review (Inoni et al., 2006; Ezejimofor et al., 2016; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018; Osuagwu & Olaifa 2018; Obida et al., 2018; Albert et al., 2019; Mba et al., 2019; Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020; Akinwumiju et al., 2020; Oghenetega et al., 2022; Crayton & Naher, 2022). Two studies each were conducted in Rivers State (Eni & Okpiliya, 2011; Olalekan et al., 2018) and Ogoni in Niger Delta (Brown & Tari, 2015; Zabbey & Tanee, 2016). One study each was done in Akwa Ibom State (Nriagu et al., 2016), Abia State (Amusa et al., 2021), Delta State (Inoni et al., 2006), and Ondo State (Ilevbare and Idemudia, 2019).

The studies were conducted in varying years, ranging from 2006 to 2022, and the participants were men and women who were residents of the oil-producing communities. The sample sizes of the participants ranged from 18 − 2,010. The studies were mainly cross-sectional studies and adopted purposive, random, and snowball sampling. Data analysis was done using descriptive and inferential statistics. Table 4 describes the characteristics of the selected studies in detail.

Table 4

The characteristics of the selected studies
S/N	Author	Location	Objective	Sampling/ Participants/Age/ Data source	Methodology	Results/ Outcome	Recommendation
1	Oghenetega et al., 2022	Health facilities in Niger Delta	The impact of oil pollution maternal exposure on maternal outcomes	Sample size n = 1720 Participants = Pregnant women with gestational age less than 17 weeks. Mean age = 29.5 years.	A prospective cohort studies. Data were cleaned with SPSS and data analysis was done using STATA. The duration of the study was one year.	The majority of the study participants lived in high-exposure areas. Women that were in high-exposure areas had a high risk of premature rupture of membrane (PROM), a caesarean section, and postpartum haemorrhage than those in low-exposure areas.	The creation of policy intervention measures that will reduce maternal exposure to oil pollution in the Niger Delta region.
2	Crayton & Naher, 2022	Niger Delta	The impact of abandoned infrastructures after oil spillage on the lives of people in the communities	Sample size n = 18 Participants = Men, and women Age = 18 years and above	A qualitative study using recorded phone conversations. The recorded data was inputted in NVivo ad coded for their specific themes. The study duration was for two weeks.	There is a lack of accountability by the government which has led to the failure of businesses, education, and unsustainable living conditions in the region.	The involvement of the government in creating laws that will help in the development of abandoned infrastructures in the region.
3	Akinwumiju et al., 2020	Niger Delta	The cause and extent of oil spillage in host communities	Geospatial sampling.	Geospatial modelling was used to assess the risk assessment of oil spillage. Data analysis was done with R programming and GIS inferential statistics.	The study noted that 7943 oil spill incidents have occurred from 2006–2019 with 67% happening onshore. A total of 4946 were due to sabotage and 87% of them happened onshore. A total of 501 were caused by corrosion, and 855 were due to equipment failure.	The prevention of oil theft and sabotage, cleaning up of polluted areas, and the prioritization of the region's socioeconomic and cultural development.
4	Mba et al., 2019	Niger Delta	The cause and terrain of oil spillage in host communities	Secondary data	Statistics were done using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Data were collected from January 2015 to September 2018.	From the collected data, the most affected terrains were swamps (82%), water (11.5%), and land (6.5%). The main identified cause of the oil spill was sabotage, operational, and mystery spill with sabotage being more pronounced than the rest.	The Nigerian government and environmental agencies should enforce oil spill management laws that will help bring the perpetrators of the criminal act to justice.
5	Osuagwu & Olaifa, 2018	Niger Delta	The impact of oil spill on fish production.	Secondary data	Data analysis was done using the Cobb-Douglas model to predict oil pollution in fish production. The data was sourced from 1981 to 2015	There were decreased levels of fish production due to oil spillage. The Agricultural interventions in Nigeria, like the Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme Fund (ACGSF), have failed to significantly improve fish production.	The enactment of environmental laws by the Federal government will protect oil-producing regions and the clean-up of affected areas.
6	Obida et al., 2018	Niger Delta	To identify the cause of oil spill, the hotspots, risk exposure to humans, and factors responsible	Secondary data	The secondary data duration covered 2007–2015.	Sabotage was the major cause of oil spills followed by operational faults. The most affected lands were rainforests, mangroves, and farmlands. The study also notes the potential of oil spill exposure to humans.	Intervention measures will help reduce the human and environmental implications due to oil spills.
7	Ezejimofor et al., 2016	Niger Delta	The impact of exposure to oil and gas pollution on hypertension prevalence.	Sample size n = 2,010 Participants Male = 43%, Female = 57% Mean Age = 44.3 years	A cross-sectional community-based study. Data analysis was done using summary statistics. The study duration was for four months.	A higher hypertension prevalence was found in participants that lived in polluted areas. Socioeconomic factors like age education, sleep deprivation, obesity, etc were also contributing factors.	The determination of high-risk populations by using environmental pollution in screening before the diagnosis of hypertension and for the effective targeting of interventions.
8	Nriagu et al., 2016	Akwa Ibom State	How oil pollution impacts the emotional state of residents in the host communities	Sample size n = 600 Participants Male = 43% Female = 57% Mean Age = 40 years	A cross-sectional study using structured questionnaires. Data analysis was done using SPSS and statistical analysis like bivariate analysis, and multiple regression analysis. The study duration was two months.	The participants were mostly worried, fearful frightened, angry, and stressed due to local oil pollution. These emotional factors can lead to physiological problems like cardiovascular, endocrine, and immunological factors.	The creation of intervention measures will help mitigate the silent psychological problems in these communities.
9	Ilevbare and Idemudia, 2019	Ondo State	To determine the psychosocial factors linked to the psychological well-being of residents in the oil-producing community.	Sample size n = 149 Participants Male = 57.7% Female = 42.3% Mean Age = 40.5 years	A descriptive survey study. The self-efficacy, social support, and well-being scale were measured.	The majority of the participants (53.7%) averaged their psychological well-being score while 24.8% had poor psychological scores.	Policymakers need to take into account personal characteristics when developing intervention strategies to improve the mental well-being of inhabitants in the Niger Delta area.
10	Uduji et al., 2019	Niger Delta	Analyze the impact of the MOCs (multinational oil companies) CSR (corporate social responsibility) model interventions against human trafficking in oil-producing regions.	Sample size n = 1200 Sample A benefited = 400 Sample B didn’t benefit = 800 Participants Sample A Male = 74.5% Female = 25.5% Sample B Male = 52.75% Female = 47.25%	A cross-sectional quantitative survey study. Sampling was done using snowball sampling. The data were analyzed with a combination of PSM and logit model.	The intervention included health services, education, infrastructure skill acquisition, employment, etc. the intervention helped curb the chances of human trafficking through the provision of basic benefits.	The intervention can aid other bodies that fight human trafficking to ensure the prosecution of trafficking cases.
11	Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019	Niger Delta	To measure the role of CSR interventions by MOCs in the traditional industries' livelihood of youths in oil-producing communities	Sample size n = 1200 Participants Male = 67.9% Female = 32.1%	A cross-sectional quantitative survey study. Sampling was done using purposive and random sampling. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics.	The results indicate that the livelihood from the TIL was low and the youths preferred that the program should be created full-time and not part-time. The findings also show an increased general memorandum of understanding interventions that will aid in pottery making, weaving, and carving to revive the traditional economic activities in Nigeria.	The intervention was created for oil-producing communities and can be worth replicating in other oil-producing communities of other countries.
12	Uduji et al., 2020	Niger Delta	The impact of the general memorandum of understanding (GMoUs) in the limitation of the resurgence of violence and conflict during the oil extraction	Sample size n = 1200 Participants Treatment Male = 75% Female = 25% Mean age = 31 Control Male = 53% Female = 47% Mean age = 36	A cross-sectional quantitative study. Data were analyzed using inferential statistics and a logit model.	The results noted that the GMosUs interventions led to a significant decrease in the insurgency in the community.	More interventions will equip youths with skills, promote the clean-up of the environment, and create employment. This will help reduce violence and conflicts in the region.
13	Zabbey & Tanee, 2016	Ogoniland, Niger Delta	The restoration of mangrove swamps impacted by oil spills.	Mangrove swamps	An initial preliminary pretreatment survey was first carried out before the planting began.	Because the planting trial among the creeks was done after preliminary investigations and site-specific remediation, there was a level of success reported but this can only be recorded successfully after two decades of monitoring.	Intensive mangrove restoration programs and the establishment of mangrove protected areas would help to conserve Niger Delta mangroves while also improving the region's inland and coastal wild fisheries and species diversity.
14	Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018	Niger Delta	Examining the corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives of multinational oil companies (MOCs) and the impact of the global memorandum of understanding (GMoU) on rural women livestock keepers in oil-producing areas.	Sample size n = 1200 Participants Female = 100% Age = < 20 - >60 years	A cross-sectional quantitative study.	The findings reported that the model was insensitive to gender and women don’t have direct access to livestock interventions.	The reevaluation of the intervention to aid rural women, eliminate discriminatory practices, and promote equality in livestock farming to remove feminized poverty.
15	Albert et al., 2019	Niger Delta	The socio-economic impact of oil spill disasters in communities	Sample size n = 11	A qualitative study using focus groups, interviews, etc. data analysis was done using NVivo software.	The results from the focus group reported oil spills majorly impacted the community, livelihood, job and tourism, and migration	When interventions are created, communities should be involved to determine the actual needs of the community. Also, stakeholders should create strategies and plans that will tackle oil spill issues and listen to the plight of the community.
16	Amusa et al., 2021	Abia State	Impact of oil spillage on cassava farmers in oil-producing communities.	Sample size n = 120 farmers	A descriptive study using structured questionnaires. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. The duration of the study was for a cropping season.	The study reported that oil spillage affected the water bodies, poor crop yield, stunted growth of plants, low income of farmers, death of aquatic lives, poor soil fertility, poor farm produce, etc.	The study suggests that farmers be given more intervention funds and that degraded soils be remedied to improve farm productivity, income, and welfare.
17	Eni & Okpiliya, 2011	Port-Harcourt, Rivers State	To examine the intervention strategy implemented to clean up on-shore oil spillage.	Soil samples	An exploratory and experimental research study. Questionnaires were used to gather data from the oil industry, the clean-up company, and the host community.	The intervention for oil spill clean-up failed and there was still a heavy presence of bioaccumulation in the soil years after the remediation intervention.	Effective monitoring of the polluted area for proper remediation. The clean-up interventions should also be internal to avoid bureaucratic problems. Communities should be compensated, and the clean-up exercise should follow the strict standards set.
18	Inoni et al., 2006	Delta State	To evaluate the impact of oil spillage on crop yield.	Sample size N = 300 farmers Mean age = 52 years	The study duration was for four years.	According to the study, the oil spill has a negative and significant effect on crop yield, agricultural production, and farm income in a way that is consistent with financial expectations.	The federal government must take the lead in implementing and enforcing strict environmental laws that will protect oil-producing regions while also ensuring a better living for the people. Intentional intervention policies must be put in place to begin massive infrastructure growth and address the devastating level of poverty among the inhabitants of the Niger Delta.
19	Brown & Tari, 2015	Ogoni, Niger Delta	The effect of petroleum exploration on the social environment.	Sample size n = 478 Participants Male = 51.4% Female = 48.6%	A qualitative and quantitative study using questionnaires, observation, photographs, and informants. Secondary data was collected from government data, census, articles, and the internet.	The communities suffered neglect and setbacks in their livelihood, income, and their occupation.	The intervention of government, non-governmental organizations, and community organizations on the effects of the oil spills and effective remediation and clean-up strategies.
20	Olalekan et al., 2018	Rivers State	The impact of oil spillage on groundwater	Water sample	The sampling was done for three months, and samples were collected from 9 am to 3 pm.	The groundwater in the community was contaminated by oil spills with reported elevated turbidity, iron, and pH levels. This has the potential to cause health problems in the community and low life expectancy.	Intervention measures focus on groundwater monitoring and the prevention of oil spillage.

3.3 Data synthesis and identified themes

The selected studies reported various themes in answer to the research questions. Three of the included studies dealt with the causes of oil spillage (Akinwumiju et al., 2020; Mba et al., 2019; Obida et al., 2018). The impact of crude oil spillage on the oil host communities was the identified theme in eleven (11) of the included studies (Inoni et al., 2006; Brown & Tari, 2015; Ezejimofor et al., 2016; Nriagu et al., 2016; Osuagwu & Olaifa, 2018; Olalekan et al., 2018; Ilevbare and Idemudia, 2019; Albert et al., 2019; Amusa et al., 2021; Oghenetega et al., 2022; Crayton & Naher, 2022;), while six (6) of the studies focused on government intervention measures (Zabbey & Tanee, 2016; Eni & Okpiliya, 2011; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018; Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020).

3.3.1 Causes of oil spillage

Table 5 outlines the identified causes and the majorly affected areas from the included studies. Three (3) studies (Obida et al., 2018; Mba et al., 2019; Akinwumiju et al., 2020) which reported on the causes of oil spillage identified sabotage, operational failures, and corrosion as the major causes responsible for the oil spillage. The operational failure and corrosion were due to the negligence of the oil companies in servicing the oil pipelines. Sabotage was reported by all the studies, and accounted for the majority of the oil spill incidents due to the economic state of the host communities. Non-state actors and militants were identified as the architect of the sabotage of government pipelines.

Mba et al. (2019) in their study attributed mystery spills to crude oil spillage which happened by chance with no identified cause. This oil spillage occurred both onshore and inland and resulted in massive contamination of the environment.

Table 5

Identified causes of oil spillage and affected areas
Authors	Identified cause	Affected areas
Akinwumiju et al., 2020	Sabotage Corrosion Equipment failure	Onshore Inland
Mba et al., 2019	Sabotage Operational Mystery spill Others	Swamp Water Land
Obida et al., 2018	Sabotage Operational Others	Broadleaved forest Mangroves Farmland Water Shrubs Settlement Grassland

3.3.2 The impact of oil spill on host communities

The impact of oil spill on the host communities was the focus of 11 of the studies (Inoni et al., 2006; Brown & Tari, 2015; Ezejimofor et al., 2016; Nriagu et al., 2016; Osuagwu & Olaifa, 2018; Olalekan et al., 2018; Ilevbare and Idemudia, 2019; Albert et al., 2019; Amusa et al., 2021; Oghenetega et al., 2022; Crayton & Naher, 2022).

Oil spillage in host communities affected the inhabitants' health, livelihood, basic amenities, and socio-economic state. When assessing the health implications, the study by Oghenetega et al. (2022) reported its effect on pregnant women. The study reported that women in high-risk areas which have been impacted by oil spills have a high prevalence of premature rupture of membrane (PROM) and post-partum haemorrhage (Oghenetega et al., 2022).

The study by Ezejimofor et al. (2016) reported a correlation between oil spillage and the blood pressure of people in host communities. The study found that those who reside in affected areas had a higher prevalence of hypertension due to sleep deprivation and unhealthy eating habits (Ezejimofor et al., 2016).

Two studies (Nriagu et al., 2016; Ilevbare Idemudia, 2019) evaluated the impact of the spillage on the mental health of the people in host communities. The studies reported that people in host communities were mostly stressed because of local oil production (Nriagu et al., 2016; Ilevbare Idemudia, 2019). This directly affects their mental health and sanity.

With regards to the impacts of oil spillage on the livelihood of the people in host communities, Amusa et al., (2021) and Inoni et al., (2006) evaluated its impacts on their farm produce while Osuagwu & Olaifa, (2018) evaluated its impacts on fish production. The study by Crayton & Naher (2022) reported a high impact of oil spillage on agricultural produce, crop yield and fish production due to resultant poor soil fertility and damage to water bodies.

Pollution of the oil-producing communities’ basic amenities through oil spillage has led to abandonment of their infrastructures (Crayton & Naher, 2022) and contamination of their drinking water (Olalekan et al., 2018). The government’s refusal to hold the polluters accountable for their actions in these communities has led to neglect, abandonment of education, unsustainable living conditions, and poor drinking water quality, thus leading to low life expectancy in the region. In addition, the oil-spillage affected the communities social environment leading to setbacks in their occupation, income, and education (Brown & Tari, 2015; Albert et al., 2019).

3.3.3 Policy measures available for mitigating the incidence of oil spills

The policy measures to mitigate the incidence of oil spills were the focus of six (6) studies (Zabbey & Tanee, 2016; Eni & Okpiliya, 2011; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018; Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020).

These intervention measures were reported to be informed by the incidence of oil spills in the host communities, The major intervention measures reported were established by the multinational oil companies (MOCs) through their corporate social responsibility (CSR) intervention models and general memorandum of understanding (GMoU) (Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018; Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020). These interventions were designed to include health services, education, infrastructure, skill acquisition, and employment. These measures will ultimately lead to reduction in the occurrence of violence, insurgency, and human trafficking in these communities. Although the intervention measures did not capture everyone in the region, they were reported to be successful for those that benefited. The studies by Uduji and Okolo-Obasi (2018), Uduji et al. (2019), Uduji and Okolo-Obasi (2019) and Uduji et al. (2020) gave outlines of those that benefitted from the interventions (see Table 6). It showed that males benefited more from the intervention measures than females. Also, Table 6 showed that majority of the beneficiaries were engaged in farming, followed by fishing and trading and the interventions were mostly targeted at adults within the age range of 21 to 35 years. The intervention measures favoured mainly married adults more than single or divorced adults

Table 6: Characteristics of individuals that benefited from the intervention

Author(s)	Participants (n)	Beneficiaries (n)	Category	Beneficiaries (%)
Uduji et al., 2019	1200	500	Sex Male Female	74.5 25.5
			Occupation Fishing Trading Farming Paid Employment Handicraft Others	16.25 18.5 30.5 14.5 10.75 9.5
			Age <20 21-25 26-30 31-35 35-40 41-45 45-50 >50	2.5 21.25 27.25 14.75 11.5 10 8 4.5
			Education None First school leaving certificate WASSCE Bachelor's degree and above	6.75 43.25 30.5 19.5
			Marital Status Single Married Widow Divorced/separated	23 57 8.25 11.75
			Household size 1-4 5-9 10-14 >15	44.5 34.5 18 3
			Annual income 1000-50,000 51,000-100,000 101,000-150,000 151,000-200,000 201,000-250,000 251,000-300,000 >300,000	2.75 8.75 18.75 19.25 23.25 19 8.25
Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019	1200	1200	Sex Male Female	68 32
			Occupation Fishing Trading Farming Paid Employment Traditional Industries Livelihood Hunting	13 3 53 3 27 2
			Age <20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60	3 7 17 32 26 16
			Education None Primary Secondary Tertiary	23 29 21 7
			Marital Status Single Married Widow Divorced Separated	6 72 10 8 4
			Household size 1-4 5-9 10-14 >15	20 52 17 12
			Annual income 1000-50,000 51,000-100,000 101,000-150,000 151,000-200,000 201,000-250,000 251,000-300,000 >300,000	5 15 30 17 14 13 6
Uduji et al., 2020	1200	600	Sex Male Female	75 25
			Occupation Fishing Trading Farming Paid Employment Handicraft Others	18 19 27 16 13 8
			Age <20 21-25 26-30 31-35 35-40 41-45 45-50 >50	3 19 25 17 14 12 7 4
			Education None First school leaving certificate WASSCE Bachelor's degree and above	10 40 29 21
			Marital Status Single Married Widow Divorced/separated	23 51 12 14
			Household size 1-4 5-9 10-14 >15	41 33 19 7
			Annual income 1000-50,000 51,000-100,000 101,000-150,000 151,000-200,000 201,000-250,000 251,000-300,000 >300,000	4 10 20 18 22 16 10
Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018	1200	1200	Sex Female	100
			Occupation Farming (part-time) Farming (full-time)	47 53
			Age <20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 >60	3 10 20 31 21 16
			Education None First school leaving certificate WASSCE Bachelor's degree and above	36 42 18 5
			Marital Status Single Married Widow Divorced Separated	7 72 9 5 7
			Household size 1-4 5-9 10-14 >15	42 32 20 6
			Annual income 1000-50,000 51,000-100,000 101,000-150,000 151,000-200,000 201,000-250,000 251,000-300,000 >300,000	37 33 15 9 4 2 1

3.3.4 Government interventions for remediation and recommendations

The reported government intervention measures were based on the restoration of the affected mangrove swamps and clean-up of the oil spill through bioremediation of the affected soils (Zabbey & Tanee, 2016; Eni & Okpiliya, 2011). The study reported that attempts at remediation of the creeks had some success, though it will be difficult to ascertain the degree of success until after at least two decades. The study recommended that the government should focus on creating intensive restoration programs that will help conserve the mangroves of the Niger Delta, which will in turn conserve their wild fisheries and biodiversity. The evaluation of the remediation of the affected soils showed that the clean-up process failed and there was still heavy accumulation of oil spills in the soil. They recommended that these interventions should be monitored more closely and done internally to avoid bureaucratic challenges and corrupt practices. They also suggested that the affected communities should be compensated and the clean-up exercises carried out under strict standards for their effectiveness.

Oil spillage in Nigerian oil-producing communities is a recurring phenomenon due to lack of strict government regulations. It has negatively impacted on the residents of the oil spill-impacted areas. This systematic review is aimed at evaluating the impact of oil spills on the residents of oil-host communities. The study was undertaken by analysing the research studies on the causes of oil spills in oil-producing states, their impact on the well-being of members of the communities, their socio-economic impact, and reported intervention measures applied to address the impacts. The literature search covered studies conducted between 2003 and 2022. A total of 2,650 studies were identified from the literature search of the selected databases. 45 duplicates were removed while 2,585 studies were excluded for not meeting the study eligibility criteria. After proper scrutiny, a total of 20 studies were used in this systematic review. The low number of quality papers retrieved and included the review highlights the lack of empirical studies on the subject matter. Watts & Zalik (2020) noted that much of the debate on who and what are responsible for pollution in Nigeria's oilfields is due to inconsistent and vague scientific and statistical records, some of which arise from deliberate obfuscation. They pointed out that publicly available data on oil spillage are marred by controversies arising from paucity of significant environmental data. Thus, the validity of and trust in oil spill data diminish with time.

The reviewed research studies reported that sabotage was the commonest cause of oil spills in these regions (Akinwumiju et al., 2020; Mba et al., 2019; Obida et al., 2018). According to Albert et al. (2019) from an institutional standpoint, corruption, weak and bad governance are major factors that influence sabotage, vandalism, and oil theft. This agrees with the report by Ojewale and le-Roux (2022) who attributed oil-spillage to sabotage by agitating youths in oil-producing communities due to neglect by the government. Highlighting how critical this factor is in oil spillage, Aduloju (2022) attributed over 4,000 cases of spillage to sabotage and equipment failure. The sabotage of oil pipelines has been estimated to account for over 74% of the total oil spillage cases within the last six years. The time-frame for oil spillage due to sabotage coincided with the period of heightened militancy in the southern part of Nigeria. Uwasomba and Alumona (2013) hinted that militancy is the major cause of the crises in the oil-producing region, and was caused due to the neglect of the region by the government. These restive youths then resort to sabotaging the country's oil facilities and pipelines to draw attention to their grievances. However, the rationale of intentionally destroying and polluting one’s environment to make a point remains debatable.

Unemployment, abject poverty, and sense of marginalization are reported to be the motivating factors for sabotage, vandalism, oil bunkering, and oil theft (Obida et al., 2018; Mba et al., 2019; Akinwumiju et al., 2020). Elum et al. (2016) rightly pointed out that these factors have instigated the militancy in the region. It was recommended that good governance, equitable distribution of profits from oil exploration, and political management across communities in the area, including natives of the oil-bearing region can help curb this incidence. However, Watts & Zalik (2020) noted that the National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) reported that most oil spills reported as due to sabotage were actually the results of operational failure, corrosion, and maintenance errors. This shows how negligence by the oil companies is aggravating the incidence of oil spills.

Different health impacts of oil spillage on oil-producing communities were reported by Ezejimofor et al., (2016), Nriagu et al., (2016), Ilevbare and Idemudia (2019) and Oghenetega et al., (2022). They observed that residency in oil spill-impacted areas affected pregnant women, induced hypertension among the residents, and negatively impacted their mental health. Studies have consistently shown that over 65% of residents of oil-host communities are hypertensive (Maduka and Tobin-West, 2017). A similar study conducted among workers exposed to oil spills reported the development of high blood pressure after prolonged exposure (Giorgini et al., 2016). This is consistent with the findings of Moneke et al (2022) and could be attributed to high inhalation of particulate matter which can cause systematic inflammation and oxidative stress (Cai et al., 2016). The health risk of oil spill exposed residents during pregnancy was also high. A study carried out in China by Huang et al. (2018) reported a high level of postpartum haemorrhage among exposed pregnant women. This is consistent with our previous study (Moneke et al; 2022), and a probable explanation could be the stimulation of oxidative stress due to exposure to oil spills which has been linked to uterine contraction inhibition (Endler et al., 2016). Exposed residents to oil spills are faced with a lot of health challenges. O’Callaghan-Gordo et al. (2016) suggested that research studies conducted in these regions should be promoted to better understand the health problems associated with residential exposure to oil-related pollutants, to support effective management strategies to prevent such pollutants, and to keep public health guidelines and policies in place to avoid exposure in already contaminated areas. Eklund et al. (2019) also reported that a lot of work need to be carried out to incorporate environmental and human impact studies, particularly to fund research on the effects of oil spills on human health in the future. They stated that because human-effect studies that are not directly related to oil exposure are generally not permitted under the implementing regulations of the Oil Spill Act of 1990, it is suggested that the Oil Spill Act of 1990 be revised to ensure coverage for the direct, indirect, and long-term impacts of oil spills on human mental and physical well-being.

The socio-economic impacts of oil spills in these oil-producing communities were reported to affect their sources of livelihood (Amusa et al., 2021; Inoni et al., 2006; Osuagwu & Olaifa, 2018), leading to the abandonment of their basic infrastructures (Crayton & Naher, 2022; Olalekan et al., 2018), and impacted social environment (Albert et al., 2019; Brown & Tari, 2015). According to Umar et al. (2021), pipeline interference has also impacted on federal government revenue due to reduction in the amount of crude available for export. The challenges of pipeline vandalization can be curbed through dialogue with the residents of these areas, infrastructure and human development, and implementation of sustainable oil exploitation and environmental management in the areas. Alvernia et al. (2021) suggested some alternative actions needed to mitigate the effects of oil spills, including distribution of allowances for elderly people, safety and care of those affected by the spill, infrastructure remuneration, and involvement of residents in decision-making and citizen engagement.

The frequent incidents of oil spillage in the Niger Delta region have led to violence, insurgency, and human trafficking. The intervention measures created by the multinational oil companies (MCOs) were designed to curb these as well as to provide education, health services, infrastructure, and employment. Data showed that these interventions were successful for the few individuals that benefited from them (Uduji et al., 2019; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2019; Uduji et al., 2020; Uduji and Okolo-Obasi, 2018). However, this was only reported for a minority of individuals and the intervention measures were not gender sensitive. They focused more on male-led households than female-led households, prioritized those with farming as an occupation, and focused mainly on those with only primary level of education and were married. Baah et al. (2019) noted that in creating intervention measures, we should not think of marginalization as an abstract concept, thereby dismissing the concrete socioeconomic and political power constraints that shape the people's lives. It is only by acknowledging the reality of these influences, the mechanisms by which they are sustained, and the effects on vulnerable populations, that interventions can be focused to promote desirable outcomes. Morgan et al. (2020) also reported that certain context-specific conditions associated with community-based interventions should be made public to promote the possibility of these initiatives adding value to the understanding of social integration and inclusion.

The government-led interventions which were focused on the restoration of mangrove swamps and oil spill clean-up reported little to no success due to ineffective monitoring processes, bureaucratic practices and corrupt practices (Zabbey & Tanee, 2016; Eni & Okpiliya, 2011). Olujobi et al. (2018) reported that legal frameworks are very important in governing oil spills. The law is an effective tool for controlling and managing social problems, as well as economic growth and exigencies and should be considered in promoting sustainable development. They also noted that law is essentially a social re-engineering tool that can be used in this case to entrench ethical corporate practices, facilitate societal well-being and longevity and reject practices that diminish and are repugnant to genuine global values and standards. Chun et al. (2020) also stated that the factors that influence public perception of risk must be evaluated to improve oil spill risk perception and the interventions should take into account the needs of different stakeholders to integrate their diverse perspectives into an efficient oil spill response approach.

4.1. Strengths and Limitations

This systematic review highlighted the various known causes of oil spillage in host communities and drew a link to its impact on exposed residents. Existing intervention measures that have been created to mitigate the problem were also discussed. The selected studies had the appropriate sample size that corresponded to the selected research methodologies and adopted sampling methods that were appropriate for the study. Also, the studies were empirical research conducted in the host communities and the findings will be effective in creating intervention measures or conducting future research in the oil-producing communities.

There is a possibility of reporting bias in some of the included studies, and this may impact on the reliability of the studies.

This systematic review revealed the causes of oil spillage in oil-host communities and highlighted how oil spillage has affected host communities in different ways. Due to the infrastructural deficit in those oil-producing communities, the residents often face neglect from the government and have to deal with the growing incidents of violence, insurrection, mass migration, and human trafficking. Also, the pollution arising from the oil-spill affects their health and well-being and their sources of income. Considering that these regions generate income for the entire country, their neglect can also lead to a general decline in the socioeconomic status of the entire country. Intervention measures should be targeted to address the causes of the agitation amongst the indigenes by involving them in the decision-making processes. An appropriate remediation strategy should be adopted to clean up the oil spills. Government-led interventions should focus more on how these areas can be restored through proper implementation of clean-up programmes, provision of compensation to communities and development of their infrastructure.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the mentorship and significant support from the Centre for Environmental Management, University of Nigeria Nsukka.

Contributions of each author

All the authors were involved in the design of the systematic review. The study idea was conceived by Chukwuemeka Ezeh, Vanessa Onyema and Anene Moneke. The first two authors carried out the publications search in different databases. Anene Moneke served as the third reviewer, and also rechecked all selected studies. Chinonye Obi crosschecked all included studies and also carried out the studies quality assessment. The manuscript was written by Chukwuemeka Ezeh and Vanessa Onyema, with Anene Moneke proofreading the manuscript. All the authors approved the final draft before submission.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Funding

The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Competing interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.”

Consent to publish

The authors consent to the manuscript being published

Availability of data and materials

All available data are supplied in the manuscript.

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A Systematic Review of the Impacts of Oil Spillage on Residents of Oil-Producing Communities in Nigeria

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Methodology