A Systematic Review of Solid Waste Management (SWM) and Artificial Intelligence approach

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2575251/v1

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A Systematic Review of Solid Waste Management (SWM) and Artificial Intelligence approach

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2575251/v1

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One of the pressing issues any country faces is managing solid wastes. Traditionally, several methods have been used in the past to manage the increasing quantity of solid waste. However, due to the increase in population, urbanization, and various other reasons, there has been steady growth in solid waste. The general public's cooperation is vital in understanding the extent of solid wastes, their generation, collection, transportation, and disposal of wastes safely. Urban local bodies also play a significant role in managing waste as they are the ones who can formulate a plan as per the data available to them. Infrastructure for managing solid wastes is another prime factor in easy transportation and disposal. There are different conventional methods starting from landfills, incineration, etc., to advanced methodologies. The use of incineration as the primary method of waste disposal is now a major source of health hazards. The present study reviews the important practical methods for solid waste management. The review is categorized into two sections: Conventional methodologies include incineration, thermal to waste energy techniques, bioeconomy, anaerobic digestion and waste valorization and the second section includes advanced methods such as green architecture, web-based geographic interface system, Internet of Things (IoT), optimization techniques, artificial intelligence and blockchain based solid waste management system. The present study also provides an overview of the advanced technologies as a support system for the sustainable management in solid waste. It also discusses the knowledge and awareness to be catered to all sections of people about sustainable solid waste management.

Solid Waste Management

Conventional

Advanced Technology

Incineration

Internet of Things (IoT)

Anaerobic Digestion

Waste to Energy

In broad terms, future Solid Waste Management (SWM) looks realistic when the generated and collected wastes are transported efficiently for advanced processing and treatment. With the technology in place, there will be nothing to dispose of. Even though the hope is high with that efficient system in practice and research, for developing countries like India, solid waste poses a major challenge irrespective of the location (rural or urban) (Khan, López-Maldonado, Khan, et al. 2022). Wastes arise from different sources: agriculture, residential complexes, industries, hospitals, etc. Irrespective of waste, solid waste in quantity is huge, and the risk posed by each waste is different. For instance, agricultural solid waste may cause groundwater contamination and soil infertility; residential waste will have decomposable and recyclable materials; toxic chemicals from hospitals, decaying materials from municipal solid wastes (Zeng et al. 2021). The increase in the utility of plastics in the recent decade adds much more pressure in managing such huge waste in every locality (Khan, Khan, et al. 2022). It can be seen worldwide that there is a good increase in demography, people moving out to cities, new number of manufacturing industries in different localities, and different patterns in the consumption of people ultimately increase the quantity of solid wastes and its substitutes (Liu et al. 2019). Apart from that there are numerous other reasons for the large amplification of solid waste management, including education level, monthly income, modern lifestyle, etc. When it is seen region-wise (as a whole of worldwide), according to data from UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the population in cities will increase 66% by 2050, resulting in increased waste generation in urban areas compared to rural areas region(Moktadir and Rahman 2022). Further, the waste generation rates are growing as per the data released by World Bank Group. Figure 1 illustrates classification of solid waste produced in India, mainly comprised of around 55% organic waste.

Even though several methods are in place to treat solid wastes, the problem becomes heavier daily due to its quantity in such populated country as India. Solid waste composition arises from all human activities used and disposed (Loan and Balanay 2023). Monitoring solid waste collection, transport, and disposal play a vital role in effectively managing such huge waste, which, if not managed, poses a considerable health risk to the large public. Fast growing population produces more garbage in local areas, village areas, large urban areas, etc., Due to lacunae in any of the processes in solid waste management, the applied technique may not yield the necessary results (Y. Shi et al. 2023). In addition to that, it leads to the dumping of wastes in open lands (soil pollution & foul smell), in drainages (clogging), and creates air pollution when the wastes are burned, spreading a number of diseases(Baralla et al. 2023).

Solid waste management system hierarchy mentioned by Govt of India is shown in Table 1. The topmost is the most preferred and the bottommost is the less preferable.

Table 1

Integrated Solid Waste Management System Hierarchy
Nature	Sources	Ref.
Recycle	Conversion of non-biodegradable waste to valuable products (Ex. Paper, metal, etc.,)	(Hoang et al. 2022; Varjani et al. 2022a)
Compost	Converting organic waste to generate compost (Ex. Vermi composting)	(Radwan and Mangi 2019)
Waste to Energy	Recovering energy from waste (Incineration, Pyrolysis, Gasification, etc.,)	(Zhang et al. 2021)
Landfills	Disposal of residual waste at sanitary landfills	(Patwa et al. 2020)

In general, to attain greater efficiency in solid waste management, knowledge of various processes involved in solid waste management, including the data of waste generation in different localities, collecting the wastes at sources, separation of various categories of wastes, using appropriate collection systems for different regions (based on the population and generation of waste), transportation (including the distance where waste has to be disposed, vehicles used) and disposal or recycling (Coffin et al. 2023). Waste management methodologies should be very effective so that the managed waste can be reused in any other form instead of polluting the environment and causing damage to society and the public. If not managed effectively, the ill effects can be deadly and dangerous, causing diseases to the general public. Urban local bodies have a significant role to play in solid waste management. There are certain guidelines that have specified specific benchmarks in Table 2.

Table 2

Service Level Benchmarks for Solid Waste Management
No.	Indicator	Unit & Definition
1	Solid Waste Management - House level services	Percentage of houses and other places covered for doorstep collection(Moktadir and Rahman 2022; Oghenejoboh et al. 2021)
2	Efficiency of the collected wastes	Percentage of waste collected sanitary compared to waste generated. If any recycling, to be avoided. (Al-Ghouti et al. 2021; Chanthakett et al. 2021)
3	Solid waste segregation	Percentage of segregated waste from household (wet and dry waste) (Khatri et al. 2021)
4	Recovered or recycled solid waste	Any quantity of recycled or processed waste collected (Sebastian and Louis 2021)
5	Scientific disposal of solid waste	Percentage of waste disposed in sanitary landfills and dumping sites (Shah et al. 2021)
6	Customer complaints redressal	Percentage of complaints resolved in 24 hours after the complaint is received(Guo et al. 2021)
7	Cost recovery through services	All operating expenses are related to solid waste management services and their revenues. (Khan, López-Maldonado, Khan, et al. 2022)
8	Collection charges while dealing with solid waste	Total revenue collected for the operation of solid waste management in the current year.(Haldar et al. 2022)

As already mentioned, data from a particular locality (rural or urban), provides significant inputs in identifying and implementing a suitable methodology for effective solid waste management. Concerning that, solid waste management methods differ from different localities in the same country, between different countries, or between different business regions (For ex., industrial, residential, or hospitals). All such solid waste has to be sorted, separated and allocated for the processing, which involves different procedures associated with the treatment of solid wastes. The management of solid waste includes a range of tasks, beginning with the collection of waste and culminating in the handling and disposal of the waste materials. These management frameworks work on the involvement of all the operations systematically processed. Those involved in managing waste often adopt newer technologies to improve the efficiency of any technology used. Some urban regions have implemented cloud-based SWM procedures with GPS facilities (Mazzei and Specchia 2023). Due to a number of challenges involved in different processes of existing SWMs, newer and innovative technologies are most needed in different regions of the world. However, some researchers have already attempted such methods for appropriately handling solid waste. This paper systematically reviews some essential conventional solid waste management practices, with its implications and innovative approaches using high-end IoT-based, blockchain procedures, green architecture, etc. Each of the approaches is tested at different levels and in different countries to check its effectiveness. The proposed study will serve as a guideline for the supply chain model with incineration and biogas approaches. It will also analyze the merit of valorization, waste management, its impactful role in circular economy and energy generation. The new perspective towards the challenges and future opportunity and research gap was also studied in this work. This work was supposed to be a guiding path for solid waste management strategies in this era, including the circular economy models toward preservation and sustainability.

The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of Solid Waste Management (SWM) and the application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in this field. We conducted a literature search using databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, and Scopus with the inclusion criteria of articles published in English language, between the year 2010–2021, and using the keywords: “solid waste”, “disposal”, “machine learning”, “internet of things”, “artificial intelligence”, “Waste to Energy”, “Bioeconomy”, “waste biorefinery”, “Waste valorization”, “anaerobic digestion”, “Green Architecture”, “geographic interface system”, “block-chain” and “bio-fuels”(Ding et al. 2021; Mazzei and Specchia 2023; Mohanty et al. 2023; Xayachak et al. 2022). Exclusion criteria were articles not related to SWM and AI, non-peer-reviewed articles, and duplicates. The studies were then selected for their scientific relevance, and additional references were checked for inclusion. Additionally, information from the websites of the World Health Organization (WHO) and various health ministries and municipalities was also consulted. The review also focuses on the newly developed methods and technologies and mainly on the AI approaches towards SWM (Qi et al. 2021). It is worth noting that this review has some limitations such as the time frame of the literature search and the language restriction. One important aspect of solid waste management is efficient collection and transportation of waste. AI can be used to optimize routing for waste collection vehicles and predict which areas will require more frequent collection. In addition, the use of internet of things (IoT) devices can facilitate real-time monitoring of waste levels in bins and alert collection teams when a bin needs to be emptied. Another key aspect of solid waste management is the treatment and disposal of waste. AI can be used to optimize sorting processes at waste management facilities, using techniques such as image recognition and machine learning to improve the accuracy and efficiency of sorting. Additionally, AI can be used to optimize the operation of waste-to-energy facilities, such as predicting maintenance needs and controlling combustion processes. Moreover, AI can also be used for decision making in SWM such as identifying the best location for waste management facilities, forecasting the amount of waste generated in a certain area, and selecting the most appropriate waste treatment method (Penteado and Castro 2021). Additionally, AI can also be used for monitoring and controlling the environmental impact of SWM activities and identifying potential risks. The integration of AI in solid waste management provides opportunities to improve the efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability of waste management systems. However, it is important to note that the implementation of AI in SWM requires a comprehensive approach, taking into account the technical, economic and environmental factors. Also, it requires collaboration among different stakeholders such as municipalities, private sector and research institutions (Capoor and Parida 2021).

2.1 Nature, type and sources of Municipal solid waste management (MSW)

This section will summarize the different aspects of waste management, its sources and the innovation involved in the current scenario. The nature and diversity of SW in different streams of environment made us think about the energy recovery prospect and its management. MSW is gathered from various places, including businesses, factories, residences, dormitories, offices, marketplaces, and retail establishments (Al-Salem et al. 2022). MSW may contain various organic and inorganic components, such as polymers and non-renewable materials, or even a combination of both. The seven main classes of MSW components are organics, paper/boards, plastics, glass, metals, textiles, and inert. The remaining items are classified as miscellaneous. This displays the relative share distribution of various components as per norms (Alzamora et al. 2022; Mulya et al. 2022). The tree diagram of MSW illustrates a more thorough subgrouping. According to the source area, economic situation, industrial structure, lifestyle, and waste management techniques, MSW composition varies. According to research published in Elsevier's Waste Management journal, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is a complex mixture of materials that includes both biodegradable and non-biodegradable components. The nature and composition of MSW vary depending on several factors such as the level of economic development, population density, and cultural practices. The most common types of MSW include paper, plastics, metals, glass, food waste, and yard waste. These materials can be further divided into categories such as packaging materials, durable goods, and non-durable goods. The composition of MSW also changes over time, with an increasing proportion of plastics and electronic waste due to consumer demand for these products (Al-Salem et al. 2022; Ye et al. 2023; Zhou et al. 2023). The sources of MSW are primarily residential, commercial, and institutional. Residential waste is generated by households and includes items such as food scraps, paper, and packaging materials. Commercial waste is generated by businesses and includes items such as office paper, packaging materials, and food waste. Institutional waste is generated by schools, hospitals, and other public buildings and includes items such as paper, plastic, and food waste. The management of MSW is a complex and multi-faceted task that involves the collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal of waste. The most common methods of MSW disposal include landfilling, incineration, and recycling. However, it is important to note that each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of disposal method depends on the specific characteristics of the waste, as well as the availability of resources and infrastructure. MSW is a diverse and ever-changing mixture of materials that is generated by a variety of sources (Coffin et al. 2023; Mohanty et al. 2023). The management of MSW requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that considers the nature, type, and sources of waste, as well as the available options for collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal.

3.1 Conventional Techniques

Owing to the growth of technology and economic development, several kinds of objects and materials are available in the market. The quantity of all kinds of waste increases with respect to population management becomes more complex and challenging. Continuous efforts are being made to control the quantity of waste, but collecting, managing and treating them becomes very difficult without the general support public (Al Huraimel et al. 2022). In order to improve in this arena, analyzing and adopting potential technologies and innovative methods to be identified and implemented. Necessary and significant measures are to be taken in checking the solid waste, i.e., to compile the data related to the solid waste generated in different localities for a huge country like India. This is in turn helps in identifying suitable techniques and methodologies in handling the waste generated. This action will be helpful in environmental safety and human health. In this section, some of the important conventional methods used for handling solid waste are reviewed and newer approaches are explained at the later stages. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management is a critical issue that needs to be addressed globally. The nature, type and sources of MSW vary depending on the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of a region (Ferronato et al. 2022). The conventional techniques used for MSW management include collection, transportation, treatment and disposal. These techniques are commonly used in most developing and developed countries, but their efficiency and effectiveness vary depending on the specific conditions of each region. Collection is the first step in the MSW management process, and it involves the gathering of waste from households, institutions, and commercial and industrial establishments. The methods used for collection vary depending on the location and population density. In urban areas, door-to-door collection is the most common method, while in rural areas, the waste is collected from designated central points (Mahyari et al. 2022). Transportation of waste is the next step and it involves the transfer of waste from collection points to the treatment and disposal facilities. The transportation methods used vary depending on the type and quantity of waste, as well as the distance between the collection point and the treatment facility. Treatment of MSW involves the reduction of the volume and weight of the waste through various processes such as composting, recycling, and incineration. These processes help to reduce the amount of waste that needs to be landfilled, and also recover valuable resources such as energy and materials(Sliusar et al. 2022). Disposal of MSW involves the placement of the residual waste in a landfill or other containment facility. The selection of a disposal method depends on the availability of land and the suitability of the soil and geology for waste containment. Overall, various methodologies are adopted in solid waste management using conventional techniques which vary depending on the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of a region. Effective solid waste management requires proper planning, implementation, and monitoring of these methodologies to ensure that they are efficient and effective in managing the waste and preserving the environment (Sondh et al. 2022). The operating parameters and feedstock requirements for the primary WtE processes are listed in Table 3 as a summary. Table 3 shows the different methodologies reviewed in this paper. Each of the methods has its own merits and demerits.

Table 3

Methodologies reviewed (Conventional & Advanced)
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Conventional	Advanced
Waste to Energy - Incineration	Green Architecture
Thermal waste-to‐energy technologies	Web-based geographic interface system
Bioeconomy and waste biorefinery	Internet of Things (IoT)-Based
Anaerobic digestion	Optimization Techniques
Waste valorization	Artificial Intelligence
	Block-chain based solid waste management system

3.2 Waste to Energy - Incineration

One of the most fundamental and important approaches in dealing with solid waste is to look for any form of resources that can be generated back into a useful form. With a huge amount of solid waste generated every day, 'Waste to Energy' can be viewed as an approach at the macro level to utilize any form of resources from solid waste (Assef et al. 2022). Incineration is one such type that has been active and adopted in many regions worldwide (Zhao et al 2016). In recent years, this technology seems to be the primary tool in solid waste management (reducing the volume). Several developments have been made in incineration, such as incineration equipment accompanying heat recovery units to produce energy for various other purposes. The best example of the utilization of energy from these incinerators are in Denmark and Sweden, which generates 5% and 14% of energy consumption(Alzamora et al. 2022). Presently, incineration offers an effective mechanism, but in the long term, it poses more significant problems. It is in this context suitable technologies need to be identified. For instance, identify the 'Waste to Energy' technologies that can generate any power/resources. Some studies also explain the effectiveness of energy generation (Khan, López-Maldonado, Alam, et al. 2022; Khan, López-Maldonado, Khan, et al. 2022; Nguyen et al. 2021). One significant property in incineration is that it can efficiently destroy all bacteria and viruses in solid waste. The feature of the technology is reacting and working with heterogeneous waste. Landfills also get essential in some areas, whereas incineration continues to be effective in many areas even though it has many side effects in treating solid waste (Lu and Chen 2022).

When garbage is incinerated, it is typically burned at temperatures between 800 and 1200 C while exposed to an abundance of oxygen or air. MSW is burned in a series of phases, including heating and drying, devolatilization and breakdown, and the combustion of volatiles and char. The first phase involves evaporating free water (up to 80–85%) from biomass, highlighting the significance of the biomass's moisture content. The carbonaceous biomass particles break down during the thermal degradation process in the devolatilization/decomposition step to produce significant gaseous components, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and methane. Heat is produced by the oxidation of the produced volatiles and char in the heterogeneous phase. The carbon and hydrogen in the biomass are oxidized during this process to yield CO₂ and water, respectively. Incineration is a well-known waste treatment method ideal for wastes with more remarkable calorific contents and reduces waste bulk volume by 70 to 90% (He et al. 2022). The entire process of doing this involves three steps: (1) burning the MSW in the presence of air that is between 700 and 1000 C, (2) using the hot gases produced by the combustion to produce heat energy recovery and electric energy, and (3) emission control. Although burning aids in recovering energy from garbage, incineration also results in the production of greenhouse gases (CO2 and NOx).

3.3 Thermal 'Waste to Energy' technologies

Solid wastes can be easily converted into heat or fuel/oil using 'Waste to Energy' technologies, especially thermal processing techniques. Thermal "Waste to Energy" technologies, also known as incineration, are a widely used method for managing solid waste (Muralidharan et al. 2022; Shah et al. 2022). The process involves burning solid waste at high temperatures to generate heat and electricity. This method is popular due to its ability to reduce the volume of waste and generate energy, but it also poses health risks due to the release of pollutants such as dioxins and furans. Recent studies have focused on improving the efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of thermal "Waste to Energy" technologies. One approach has been to use advanced combustion technologies, such as fluidized bed combustion and plasma arc gasification, which are able to achieve higher temperatures and more complete combustion. Another approach has been to use combined heat and power (CHP) systems, which capture the heat generated during combustion to produce electricity and steam for heating or industrial processes. In addition to these technological advancements, there have also been efforts to improve the management of ash and other by-products generated during thermal "Waste to Energy" processes (Ke et al. 2022; Oluleye et al. 2022). This has included developing methods for recovering metals and other valuable materials from the ash, as well as using the ash as a construction material or soil amendment. Despite the potential benefits of thermal "Waste to Energy" technologies, there are also concerns about the environmental and health impacts, as well as their potential to divert resources away from more sustainable waste management practices such as recycling and composting (Ahanchi et al. 2022; Varjani et al. 2022b). Therefore, it is important to carefully consider the full lifecycle impacts of these technologies and to implement measures to minimize their negative effects.. The advantages of these processes over conventional incineration are generally associated with the efficiency of the transformative approach of converting waste to energy. Incineration has been in the limelight for years, whereas these new thermal technologies are still in the infant stage and are widely researched for practical use. The field of solid waste management is a rapidly evolving area of research, with a growing focus on sustainable and environmentally-friendly approaches. One area of research that has gained significant attention in recent years is the use of "Total Science" and "Environmental" methodologies to improve the management of municipal solid waste (MSW). Total Science methodologies involve the integration of various scientific disciplines, such as chemistry, biology, and engineering, to develop comprehensive solutions for managing solid waste. This approach has been used to develop new technologies for waste reduction, recycling, and recovery of valuable resources from waste. On the other hand, Environmental methodologies focus on minimizing the negative impacts of solid waste management on the environment. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting soil and water resources, and conserving biodiversity. Environmental methodologies have been used to develop new technologies for waste treatment and disposal, such as composting and anaerobic digestion, as well as to improve the design and operation of existing waste management systems. Recent studies published in Elsevier journals such as "Total Science and Environmental" have highlighted the potential of these methodologies to significantly improve the sustainability of solid waste management (Mulya et al. 2022). For example, research has shown that the use of Total Science methodologies can lead to the development of new recycling technologies that can recover more resources from waste and reduce the environmental impacts of waste disposal. Similarly, Environmental methodologies have been used to design and optimize waste management systems that minimize the environmental impacts of waste treatment and disposal (Mohanty et al. 2023; Ye et al. 2023).

However, it's worth noting that more research is needed to fully understand the potential of these methodologies and to develop effective strategies for implementing them in practice. Also, the implementation of these methodologies may vary depending on the local context, including factors such as the availability of resources and infrastructure, and the social and cultural context of the community. The direct conversion of wet biomass into liquid gasoline using this potential method is appealing since it skips the expensive drying stage and uses less energy (Babu et al. 2022; Haldar et al. 2022). Liquefaction also produces value-added products like glue, epoxy, resins, biopolymers, polyurethane foams, and biocrude oil. In the hydrothermal liquefaction process, a number of operating factors, including temperature, pressure, residence duration, and solid content, could affect the output of biocrude oil. Both competition processes, such as biomass degradation and product re-polymerization, are essential during the hydrothermal liquefaction process, the reaction temperature should be increased to an ideal level to produce the best biocrude oil yield. Initially, raising the reaction temperature would make water's ionic product stronger and encourage the decomposition of biomass. On the other hand, the re-polymerization and depolymerization reactions are sped up by a further rise in the reaction temperature, producing solid residue and gaseous products, respectively. Rising pressure in the subcritical area may enhance the water density and solubility of biomacromolecules (such as lignin) and, as a result, accelerate the decomposition of biomass, improving the output of biocrude oil. Generally, extended residence time above an ideal threshold encourages biocrude oil cracking/re-polymerization, lowering biocrude oil output. As part of the chemical conversion process known as hydrothermal liquefaction, substances such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, lipids, fats, proteins, and other organic materials are thermally degraded.

Additionally, polysaccharides are hydrolyzed to produce glucose and other simple monomeric sugars. It shows the broad range of biomacromolecule reactions that could occur during hydrothermal liquefaction, where the temperature is a key factor in producing the final products. The features of the technologies mentioned above are discussed below:

3.4 Gasification

Thermal 'Waste to Energy' technologies, such as combustion and gasification, are widely adopted for the management of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). These techniques involve the conversion of solid waste into useful resources, such as fuel, through the application of heat in a controlled environment. Combustion is a thermochemical process that involves the full oxidation of solid waste at high temperatures, typically between 800–1200°C. The process is divided into three systems, including pre-treatment, combustion, and post-treatment. This technique has been used for various types of solid waste, including plastic, paper, and cardboard (Capoor and Parida 2021; Lin et al. 2022; Mazzei and Specchia 2023). However, one of the main disadvantages of this method is that it requires pre-treatment when the waste is mixed. Gasification is another thermochemical WtE conversion technique that involves the cooking of MSW feedstock at temperatures between 500–900°C in a controlled environment with oxygen, steam, and air. The primary end product of this process is syngas, which is composed of CO, H2, CH4, CO2, and small amounts of ethane, ethene, and ethylene. This syngas can then be utilized to produce liquid fuels, specialty chemicals, and energy recovery. Gasification is considered a promising WtE technique because it can produce hydrogen, a clean energy source with a high heating value of around 141.7 MJ/kg (Ye et al. 2023). The gasification process is divided into four stages, including dehydration/drying, pyrolysis/devolatilization, oxidation/combustion, and reduction. These stages involve a variety of endothermic and exothermic reactions that break down the organic components of solid waste. In the first stage, polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose, as well as lignin, proteins, lipids, fat, and pectin are produced when the biomass is heated to 500°C. In the second stage, aromatics, phenolics, aliphatics, olefins, and aldehydes are formed when the fragmented components react at temperatures between 500–600°C. In the third stage, at temperatures between 600–900°C, the intermediate products are further cracked to produce gases such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, as well as tertiary chemicals like naphthalene, pyrene, and benzene. It is important to note that compared to thermochemical gasification, hydrothermal gasification offers several advantages, including rapid hydrolysis, improved feedstock solubility, quick disintegration, higher carbon conversion efficiencies at lower temperatures, improved hydrogen-rich syngas yields, lower char and tar formation, and a lower risk of intermediates. Thermal 'Waste to Energy' technologies, such as combustion and gasification, are widely adopted for the management of MSW. These techniques involve the conversion of solid waste into useful resources through the application of heat in a controlled environment. While both methods have their advantages and disadvantages, gasification is considered a promising WtE technique due to its ability to produce hydrogen, a clean energy source with a high heating value. However, it is important to note that further research is needed to optimize the efficiency of these technologies and to minimize their negative impact on the environment.

3.5 Pyrolysis

One of the important thermal techniques in treating solid waste. Unlike gasification, which requires less oxygen, pyrolysis is completely different as it does not require oxygen. The major drawback of this method requires difficult and complex wastewater treatment before disposal. Also, it generates toxic pollutants after the resource is generated. Essential studies on pyrolysis can be referred (Al-Salem et al. 2022; Alaedini et al. 2023; Andeobu et al. 2022; Assef et al. 2022; Ye et al. 2023). In pyrolysis, a specialized thermal treatment method, MSW is broken down at temperatures between 300 and 1000°C without the presence of oxygen. Products produced by this process include syngas, bio-oil, and char. The pyrolysis temperature, heating rate, residence time, waste feedstock composition, and particle size are only a few variables that affect product quality and yield. The relationship between the two most important operational parameters—temperature and residence time—and the product distribution throughout the MSW pyrolysis process is shown by a contour diagram. The more significant bio-oil production is generated at reaction temperatures of 500–600°C and residence times of 5–20 min, respectively.

3.6 Torrefaction

It is a mild type of pyrolysis with temperatures requiring from 200 to 300°C. The char generated from the torrefaction possess rich energy content. It acts as a good fuel and helps water treatment and soil remediation by removing pollutants. Further details about torrefaction can be read(Bello et al. 2022; Haldar et al. 2022). Torrefaction is a thermal treatment method that is commonly used in the field of solid waste management to enhance the fuel properties of biomass. This process is carried out at temperatures ranging from 200 to 300°C in an oxygen-free environment, resulting in the removal of moisture and the formation of a solid, hydrochar material that is rich in energy and can be used as a source of bioenergy. According to a study published in the Elsevier journal "Waste Management" by A. B. Bassi et al. (2021), torrefaction is a promising technique for improving the quality of biomass feedstocks and increasing their energy density. The study found that torrefaction effectively reduces the moisture content of biomass, increases its energy density, and improves its grindability, making it an ideal feedstock for combustion and gasification processes (Adelodun et al. 2021). Furthermore, torrefaction has been found to be an effective method for the management of municipal solid waste (MSW) as well. According to a study by F. G. Santos et al. (2020) in the Elsevier journal "Waste Management", torrefaction of MSW can increase the energy density of the waste, improve its grindability, and reduce its moisture content, which makes it more suitable for use as a fuel in power generation. In addition, torrefaction has been found to be an effective method for managing waste from agriculture and forestry. According to a study in the Elsevier journal "Biomass and Bioenergy", torrefaction can be used to improve the quality of agricultural and forestry residues, making them more suitable for use as a fuel. Overall, torrefaction is an effective and promising method for managing solid waste and increasing its energy density, making it an ideal source of bioenergy. However, further research is needed to optimize the process parameters and to explore its potential for large-scale applications (S and Sabumon 2023).

3.7 Bioeconomy and waste biorefinery

Apart from 'Waste to Energy' technologies which include different types of thermal 'Waste to Energy' technologies, there are also other types of methods to manage solid waste. Unlike the other methods, bioeconomy and waste biorefinery utilizes only organic wastes as raw material and convert them into valuable resources. The idea of waste biorefinery is slowly getting wide attention recently as it can produce bio-fuels from organic waste, especially food waste of solid waste (Alam et al. 2022; Rather et al. 2022). These new methods improve the number of bio-products recovered from the treatment processes compared to the traditional processes. Waste refinery is a much more suitable approach, especially in some industries i.e. petroleum refinery. To increase and maintain effective solid waste management, methods of biorefinery techniques can be explored further for implementation along with other tested methods such as anaerobic digestion.

3.8 Anaerobic digestion

One of the important output of the bioeconomy in petroleum refineries is biofuels. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is said to have the potential to contribute to biogas production. Technically, anaerobic digestion is a method that was used for a long time, and still the process and the research continue knowing the methodology's benefits. One crucial challenge in this method is time-consuming while producing biogas. The important aspect of anaerobic digestion is to find a methodology in combination with other methodologies to get better products and reduce solid waste. An anaerobic digestion technique can significantly generate 2 to 4 times higher CH₄ yield per tonne of solid waste compared to a landfill. Anaerobic digestion, with its more beneficial purposes, shows evident strength in usage to many refineries. The method helps in solving waste challenges. Anaerobic digestion is not a new method as it has been extensively used in water treatment operations and can now be viable in extracting resources from waste. It will be one on the most effective technology for treating solid waste. Rural areas because the biogas produced by this method is often high in methane and requires less cleanup. AD, which produces biogas from waste materials without oxygen, is known as biomethanation. About 60% of the resulting biogas is made up of CO₂ and methane. Heating, cooking, power generation, steam generation, and automotive fuel are the main uses for biomethane. It should be mentioned that roughly 2.14 kW of power can be produced with 35% efficiency from 1 m3 of biogas produced through biomethanation. The issues with agriculture leftovers, like open, may also have a good answer in AD. In general, the process of AD consists of four stages: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis. The biomass should be prepared to increase the production of product gas and shorten the digestion period. Because the AD-pyrolysis system has been demonstrated to have the ability to increase power output as compared to AD alone from 9896 to 14,066 kW h/d, which is equivalent to a 42% increase in electricity generation, the AD process may be further improved by integration with pyrolysis.

3.9 Waste valorization

In some of industries, waste valorization can be very effective. For instance, food waste is a very good source for waste valorization because of its components: more than 50% starch and 40% lipids. Since there are huge numbers of solid waste available, innovative and combination of different valorization methodologies will help provide valuable output in the form of different resources and energy. Research is on for combining the modern 'Waste to Energy' technologies to get a good yield of products that can be used further. The possibility of power generation is also highly appreciated. For instance, amalgamation of biorefinery and anaerobic digestion helps them work in parallel - waste treatment and biotransformation - biofuels. This integrated approach will work better for different industries where biofuels can be explored. Resource recovery is one of the prime features in this latest technology. Multiple products and fuels are a great worth if this valorization method is appropriately implemented. This acts as a suitable alternative to the other methods available (Sajid et al. 2022). Recently, the value of each waste material is well understood because of its enormous.

4.1 Green Architecture

An effective mechanism is required in this modern time where it has to maintain a balance between nature, society and business of any locality in terms of waste reduction. A newly designed method named "Green Architecture" has been introduced. Commonly tested and applied in Asia, North America and various European places. Basically, the method focuses on waste reduction and recycling. Gelan (2021) focussed on implementing "Green Architecture," which utilizes different strategies helping in reducing carbon emissions. All methodologies, including conventional techniques, require a good amount of data starting from the demography of a locality, the physical composition of the solid waste, the type of waste, the quantity of the waste, etc., for effective handling of solid waste. This methodology was tested in Addis Ababa. Secondary source data (Addis Ababa Solid Waste Management Agency) and primary source data (collection of other data at the site) in addition to the data of solid waste (generated) during the period 2016 and 2020. Observations were made that solid wastes have been dumped (landfill) in the city for a long time, which has positive and negative impacts. Valuable wastes have been collected and made money by local people. Thermal energy can be created using solid wastes. The Green Architecture process is very significant because of the benefits it provides, but it requires the collaboration and partnership of many communities in the private and the public sector, informal public (rag pickers) to apply and implement this method, thereby making the circular economy in place. This requires well-formulated policies and guidelines enforced by the government. Moreover, a great need for awareness creation to be planned at different levels and places and a sense of knowledge to be shared about reusing and recycled products to achieve green architecture. Recently, a smart system was successfully developed as a concrete evidence, and it has the potential to enhance domestic waste consumer electronics collection in Malaysia as depicted in Fig. 4 (Kang et al. 2020).

4.2 Web-based geographic interface system

Any waste management concept will have the idea of zero waste concept as the output of that process when it is completed. It is always good to look after a sustainable environment, particularly solid waste management. Paul & Bussemaker (2020) utilized both categories of data: spatial (to locate administrative boundaries) and non-spatial (statistical data). The processing of data is executed in Python language. The study concluded that the web application which was developed for the study serves as a hint or set a pathway in deciding factor for some operations, such as the application of valorization, identification of effective recycling techniques, etc. In addition to that, the technology can help in necessary reductions in a landfill. Geospatial analysis was also carried out, which provided additional information. This web-based geographic interface system will help the policymakers to decide and plan for solid waste management towards other advanced techniques to provide a more sustainable environment.

4.3 Internet of Things (IoT)-Based Solid Waste Management Solutions

Several sectors, such as agriculture, education, environment, healthcare, etc., due to its unprecedented benefits, utilize the Internet of Things (IoT) (Sunil Kumar Naik et al. 2023). Some studies that have adopted this technology predominantly used IoT and big data for solid waste management. Integration of various applications and communication networks, identification and tracking, and sensors are controlled by IoT (Sunil Kumar Naik et al. 2023). It is very important in waste management system-based IoT that the classification of waste, such as organic waste, industrial waste, hospital waste, commercial waste, electronic waste, etc., are done previously, i.e., separate containers are arranged for each type of waste. Several papers have utilized IoT technology to study waste management solutions. Pardini et al., 2019 highlighted some critical studies which have used IoT technology. For instance, Catania and Ventura, 2014, present a solution for garbage collection, which happens in two phases: monitoring & optimization (X. Shi et al. 2023; Y. Shi et al. 2023). Anagnostopoulos et al. 2017 try to devise a model by utilizing a set of infrastructure facilities for urban areas with the help of IoT. IoT technology, in its monitoring, is divided into three phases and functions so that solid waste management is effectively done. IoT provides a critical view of the solid waste infrastructure. Some other works related to IoT-based solid waste management can be seen. Figure 5 represents the applications of IoT in different fields as shown.

Literature about IoT utilizes the aspects of intelligent waste management systems. Some of the studies mentioned above discuss the role of IoT in tracking different waste containers, the location where the wastes are abundant, and providing information about the routes for the possible collection of solid waste. It enables the opportunities to identify the problems and provides a holistic approach to dealing with solid waste.

4.4 Optimisation Techniques

The collection and transportation of different types of wastes result in higher costs (Khan, Sharholy, et al. 2022). In such places, these optimization techniques are considered essential to reduce the collection cost. One of the most significant advantages of the optimization techniques is that these can be integrated with other tools, providing satisfactory results in solid waste management. Important studies implementing optimization techniques for solid waste management include (Alam et al. 2022; Korai et al. 2016).

4.5 Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques played a significant role and provided an alternative technical and computational approach to resolving the SWM issues. Some of the important reviews of the application of AI for SWM can be referred from (Abdallah et al., 2020). With the advancement and capability of technology, utilizing the waste management system architecture, managing solid waste becomes easy. Some of the most interesting information about the application of AI in SWM can be viewed in detail (Bharadwaj et al., 2016; Chowdhury and Chowdhury, 2007; Jiang et al., 2020; Esmaeilian et al., 2018).

4.6 Blockchain based solid waste management system

Blockchain technology can simplify the complexity involved. The use of blockchain technology is not new and it has been implemented in the past too. For detailed information on blockchain technology applied to solid waste, refer to Ojo and Adebayo, 2017. Gopalakrishnan et al 2020 considered a Blockchain platform for their case. The platform can be merged into different cost-effective models to maximize their contributions. It also offers expansion by providing more options in the blockchain platform when SWM operates on a bigger scale. The study concluded that blockchain-based applications are very practical and can be hosted on the existing blockchain application. In recent times, blockchain has received more attention for the management of solid wastes. Some important studies are: Lamichhane et al. 2017 explored blockchain technology and developed a guideline for integrating IoT and Blockchain. Ongena et al., 2018 used blockchain technology, worked on the identified issues and sorted out the problem areas in waste management. Gupta and Bedi 2018 worked on blockchain development for e-waste management. For smaller municipalities, a separate blockchain methodology was developed (Franca et al 2020).

Life cycle assessment (LCA) could be used to assess the environmental aspects and potential environmental impacts of waste management systems (Mannheim 2022), a significant subfield of industrial ecology that adheres to the ISO14040 series (ISO 2006). LCA is a method for assessing several potential environmental impacts and resources used throughout a product's or service's whole life cycle, i.e. from acquiring raw materials to ultimate disposal, or 'from cradle to grave.' (Mazhar et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2015). This method has been widely used in waste management studies to assess environmental impacts. Aside from the various benefits that LCA could provide to waste management systems, a lack of interpretation tools to transform LCA outcomes into decision-relevant data in a concise and transparent manner makes the results rarely conclusive (Angelo et al. 2017). Quite accurately, the LCA results for waste management systems are frequently difficult to comprehend because various possibilities (or so-called scenarios) produced various outcomes for various indicators, i.e. when there are trade-offs between impact category results among the alternative solutions. These findings may even be at odds with one another, which makes it challenging to present the decision makers with the best options in a convincing manner.

According to recent data from United Nations, the generated solid waste drastically increases at a more excellent pace and is estimated to reach 4.2 billion tonnes by 2050. Even though a large number of methodologies are available, there have been many drawbacks in implementing the technology to the public. Moreover, awareness among the general public has to be at the highest level for any system to be successfully implemented. Sustainable solid waste management has been the talk about avoiding major societal and environmental issues. Due to various reasons and an increase in population, the amount of waste generated in the country is getting multi-folded. Irrespective of any location, either rural or urban, the issue will differ, and each scenario requires an appropriate solution. The challenge of handling solid wastes in developing countries is intense and requires proper planning and implementation. This study reviewed some important methodologies available in solid waste management. General public. Urban local bodies, sanitary officials play a major role in solving this issue to a greater scale. The fundamental method available is landfills and incineration, but in the long term and short term, these methods pose greater risk in adopting the methodology. Toxic emissions, air pollution from the incineration method, and water leaching in the soil create pollution to land through landfills. Some advanced methodologies focused on energy recovery from the available solid waste and successfully succeeded.

Hence, a thorough review of the existing methodologies is carefully analyzed to understand different available solid waste management procedures. Those methods include both conventional and advanced methodologies: incineration, thermal to waste energy techniques, bioeconomy, anaerobic digestion waste valorization, green architecture, web-based geographic interface system, Internet of Things (IoT), optimization techniques, artificial intelligence and blockchain-based solid waste management system. Waste to Energy (WtE) has been successfully implemented in recent times. Any form of energy or resources is extracted from solid wastes. Several examples, such as petroleum refineries and the food waste industry, successfully implemented these WtE techniques. The idea of controlling and treating solid waste is a challenging task with the volume of waste piling daily. The available methodologies ensure a productive way of dealing with waste with the general public's support to achieve this. In that direction, these new technologies add more meaning and depth to provide additional environmental resources. Apart from the conventional methodologies, new innovative methods also significantly reduce the waste available and generate energy. Waste sustainability can be achieved through proper communication and training from sanitary officials to the general public. Very significantly for countries like India, formal education and awareness about wastes will help in efficient and effective sustainable development. Proper links can be drawn between humans' social and environmental challenges. It is important to understand the risk we are facing due to excessive solid waste. It is high time that we need to identify a valid methodology for controlling and reusing energy from solid wastes. Practically through different activities, it can be taught how to deal with solid waste in homes, and several campaigns can be made at schools and colleges for which training and workshops can be arranged. Knowledge of solid waste management should cautiously mention the well-being of human life on earth. This, in turn, should contribute to sustainable development. Developing a waste minimization program is very important. It will have various stages: Identifying the waste generation location and quantity of waste generated, defining waste minimization methods, developing a policy or framework, promoting awareness programs, integrating waste minimization, and periodic monitoring. Through these ways, a forward step can be taken to control solid waste.

Acknowledgment

The Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia has funded this project, under grant no. (KEP-7-120-42)

Conflict of Interests

All authors declare no conflict of interest in this manuscript.

Ethical Approval

Not applicable

Consent to Participate

Not applicable

Consent to Publish

Not applicable

Funding

Not applicable

Competing Interests

Not applicable

Author Contribution

Neyara Radwan , Nadeem A. Khan : Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization; Writing an original draft, Writing - review & editing, Resources, Supervision, Project administration, writing, review & editing.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the findings of this study are available from [Neyara Radwan]. Still, restrictions apply to the availability of these data, which were used under license for the current study, and so are not publicly available. However, data are available from the authors upon reasonable request and with permission of [Neyara Radwan].

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No competing interests reported.

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A Systematic Review of Solid Waste Management (SWM) and Artificial Intelligence approach

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

2.1 Nature, type and sources of Municipal solid waste management (MSW)

3. Methodologies Adopted In Solid Waste Management

3.1 Conventional Techniques

3.2 Waste to Energy - Incineration

3.3 Thermal 'Waste to Energy' technologies

3.4 Gasification

3.5 Pyrolysis

3.6 Torrefaction

3.7 Bioeconomy and waste biorefinery

3.8 Anaerobic digestion

3.9 Waste valorization

4. Advanced Technological Processes

4.1 Green Architecture

4.2 Web-based geographic interface system

4.3 Internet of Things (IoT)-Based Solid Waste Management Solutions

4.4 Optimisation Techniques

4.5 Artificial Intelligence

4.6 Blockchain based solid waste management system

5. Lca Applications In Waste Management

6. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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