Diameter Growth of Eucalyptus Trees in Agroforestry Systems and Its Relation to Air Temperature and Precipitation

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2591302/v1

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Diameter Growth of Eucalyptus Trees in Agroforestry Systems and Its Relation to Air Temperature and Precipitation

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2591302/v1

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published 27 Dec, 2023

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In agroforestry systems, such as Integrated Crop-Livestock-Forest (iCLF), the agricultural, livestock and arboreal components are explored in the same field in rotation, succession or intercropping. Our objective was to investigate if the diameter growth of eucalyptus in agroforestry systems differs from those cultivated as a planted forest, as well as to assess whether there is a difference in its growth in face of the air temperature and precipitation. The study was held at Ponta Porã, Brazil, a region of humid subtropical climate with hot summers and soil classified as Oxisol, fertile, deep and clayey. Dendrometer bands measured the diameter growth of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urograndis) cultivated as a forest and in iCLF, with eucalyptus rows distance of 12.5x12.5 m, 12.5 m one side x 25 m another side and 25x25 m. The study took place from four years and nine months after transplanting till six years and seven months (22 months). On iCLF, the inter-row was explored with grain crops (soybean or corn) and pasture. Climate data of air temperature and precipitation were used to investigate their influence or not on diameter growth. Eucalyptus diameter growth is higher when cultivated in agroforestry systems and this growth is as higher as larger is the distance between eucalyptus rows. Precipitation proved to strongly and positively influence the diameter growth, especially when cultivated in agroforestry systems. On the other hand, under the conditions of this study, air temperature showed little or no influence over the eucalyptus diameter growth.

Dendrometer

diameter at the breast height

climate change

water deficit

The evaluation of the dynamics of trees radial growth is of great importance in order to enhance the comprehension about how forest species responds to the stimuli and variations of climate conditions. Hence, dendrometers has been applied for this purpose, both for studying tropical species (KOMIYAMA el al. 2019; VOURLITIS et al. 2022), and also for temperate ones (D’ORANGEVILLE et al. 2022; DREW et al. 2022).

According to FAHN et al. (1981), the periodicity of cambium activity looks like to be a consequence of fluctuations in temperature, day length and precipitation, while the endogenous factors related to the species controls growth rhythm.

Worldwide, the eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) is the most cultivated forest genus, occupying and area around 25 million ha (ELLI et al. 2020), being Brazil the top producer with 7.5 million ha (IBÁ, 2022). In Brazil eucalyptus is indicated for multiple purposes and presents interesting characteristics for the forest sector, because of the high productivity of its forest, besides of its smooth adaption to the climates and soils of the national territory (SILVA 2002).

Although normally eucalyptus is cultivated as a forest, its insertion in the field as a component together with crops and/or pastures can push changes to the production environment, potentially incorporating benefits in favor of the agricultural sustainability. Such integrated production system, an agroforestry one, has been consolidated over time and is called Integrated Crop-Livestock-Forest (iCLF), because in it, according to FARIA et al. (2015), the agricultural, livestock and arboreal components are explored in the same field in rotation, succession or intercropping.

In tropical regions, the environmental factors that has been proving to be more relevant in explaining the diameter growth of eucalyptus clones are the air temperature and precipitation (FREITAS et al. 2017; ELLI et al. 2020; QUEIROZ et al. 2020; ABREU et al. 2022). However, starting from the assumption that eucalyptus cultivated as a forest or in an agroforestry system can respond differently to those climate variables, studies regarding such issue are required because they are scarce.

Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate if the diameter growth of eucalyptus cultivated in agroforestry systems (iCLF) differs from those cultivated as a planted forest, as well as to assess whether there is a difference in its growth in face of the air temperature and precipitation.

2.1. Location and characterization of the environment

This study was held at the experimental station of Embrapa Western Agriculture, at the city of Ponta Porã, Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil (22º32’56”S; 55º38’56”W; 680 m above sea level).

The regional climate is classified as Cfa, according to the Köppen-Geiger classification updated by PEEL et al. (2007), being defined as a humid subtropical climate with hot summers. According to SOUZA (2018), as can be seen in Fig. 1, mean annual precipitation is 1,667 mm, with October as the rainiest month, with 194 mm, and August the driest, with 53 mm (statistics from a database of 47 years and 5 months). The mean annual air temperature is 22 ºC, with July as the coldest month (mean daily minimum of 13.2 ºC) and December as the warmest (mean daily maximum of 28.8 ºC) (statistics from a database of 26 years).

The soil is classified as an Oxisol, presenting medium to high fertility, deep and clayey (50 to 70% clay). Nonetheless, its clay fraction is of the 1:1 type, predominating the kaolinite and iron oxide (more than 18%), which is the reason for the water retention capacity in this soil to be lower than that of others typically clayey soils. This also implies in high infiltration rates and low cation exchange capacity. The region has a flat topography, with slopes normally lower than 3%.

2.2. Experimental area, design and treatments

The experimental area (Fig. 2) had 17.3 ha and consisted in a technological reference unit on iCLF maintained by Embrapa Western Agriculture. It had different production systems which were installed for about five years when this study was initiated. Previously, the area was cultivated for 30 years with annual crops. Briefly, at the experimental area the studied production systems exploited: soybean (Glycine max) during the summer; corn (Zea mays) from autumn to winter; pasture (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés) all year round; and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus urograndis) permanently.

Among the various production systems, this study involved the analysis of eucalyptus diameter growth at the parcels cultivated as a forest and in agroforestry, iCLF (Figs. 2 and 3), as follows:

Treatment 1: Eucalyptus forest;
Treatment 2: Integrated crop-livestock-forest with eucalyptus row distance of 12.5 x 12.5 m (iCLF 12.5x12.5);
Treatment 3: Integrated crop-livestock-forest with eucalyptus row distance of 12.5 m one side x 25 m another side (iCLF 12.5x25);
Treatment 4: Integrated crop-livestock-forest with eucalyptus row distance of 25 x 25 m (iCLF 25x25).

The eucalyptus forest had a total area of 1.6 ha, being 50 m wide (16 eucalyptus rows) and 320 m long. The planting design was 3 m between eucalyptus rows and 2 m between trees, totalizing 2,560 trees (1,600 trees ha^− 1). Planting lines were disposed in an almost east to west orientation.

Every iCLF treatment was a single eucalyptus row design, also in an almost east to west orientation, with trees spaced 2 m each other. As disposed in Fig. 3, the total area of 6.6 ha was split in two equal portions (“iCLF a” and “iCLF b”), in such a way that the eucalyptus inter-row spacing was cultivated with crops or pastures, being them rotated every two years. This inter-row cultivation, which followed a rotation plan, started at the moment when eucalyptus trees were planted. During the period of this study, after harvesting the 2015 season, the systems rotation occurred, that is, the area in which we had pasture (Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés) starts to be cultivated with crops (soybean during the summer and corn intercropped with Brachiaria brizantha cv. Xaraés from autumn to winter) and vice versa (Table 1).

Table 1

– Treatments arrangement described sequentially in time according to the rotation plan in iCLF systems.
	Forest	iCLF 12.5x12.5	iCLF 12.5x25		iCLF 25x25
	Forest	iCLF 12.5x12.5	iCLF a	iCLF b	iCLF a	iCLF b
Nov/2014 - Oct/2015	E	C and P	P	C	P	C
Nov/2015 - Sep/2016	E	C and P	C	P	C	P

iCLF: integration crop-livestock-forest; E: eucalyptus; C and P: one side crop, other side pasture; P: pasture; C: crop.

Trees population in the configuration iCLF 12.5x12.5 was equivalent to 400 trees ha^− 1 (8 rows ha^− 1), while in the treatment iCLF 12.5x25 it was 300 trees ha^− 1 (6 rows ha^− 1) and, finally, the treatment iCLF 25x25 with 200 trees ha^− 1 (4 rows ha^− 1).

The eucalyptus was planted in February 2010, using seedlings from seeds. They received fertilizers on June 2012, with 2 years and 5 months after transplanting, manually applying 200 mL tree^− 1 of a boron fertilizer source and NPK granular fertilizer 0-20-20.

The crop and pasture components were managed wishing allow them to express a full production considering the environmental conditions of the region in which they were cultivated, by using strategies and technologies similar to those used by regional farmers. The pasture was always managed with beef cattle grazing it.

2.3. Diameter growth monitoring

A total of 90 trees had its diameter growth monitored, being 15 from the eucalyptus forest, 15 from iCLF 12.5x12.5, 30 from iCLF 12.5x25 (15 at “iCLF a” and 15 at “iCLF b”) and, finally, 30 from the iCLF 25x25 (also 15 at “iCLF a” and 15 at “iCLF b”). The monitoring was done only in trees located centered in the row (excluding those from the borders), looking to be healthy and without injuries, tortuosity and branching. It was done almost monthly, from November 2014 (4 years and 9 months after transplanting) till September 2016 (6 years and 7 months after transplanting), totalizing 22 months.

Trees circumference at the breast height (CBH) was measured using dendrometer bands (Fig. 4), installed on the trunks at a fixed height of 1.3 m above the soil level.

The dendrometers were made up and used following the recommendations described in BOTOSSO and TOMAZELLO FILHO (2001). The CBH was measured by means of the Eq. 1:

$$CBH={CBH}_{initial}+\left(DR\times 0.2\right)-\left({DR}_{initial}\times 0.2\right)$$

where CBH is the circumference at the breast height (cm), CBH_initial is the circumference at the breast height measured on the installation of the dendrometer (cm), DR is the dendrometer reading (in nonius units) and DR_initial is the dendrometer reading on its installation (in nonius units).

CBH values were converted into diameter at the breast height (DBH) using the Eq. 2:

$$DBH=\frac{CBH}{\pi }$$

where DBH is the diameter at the breast height (cm) and CBH is the circumference at the breast height (cm).

Using the DBH data, it was possible to evaluate the diameter growth of the 90 trees from the different treatments. It was done by determining the increment in diameter occurred between two consecutive readings, using Eq. 3:

$$DI={DBH}_{final}-{DBH}_{previous}$$

where DI is the diameter increment observed between two consecutive readings (cm), DBH_final is the diameter at the breast height on the late reading (cm) and DBH_previous is the diameter at the breast height on the early reading (cm).

This DI was relativized as a function of the time interval (in days) for the respective growth to occur. It was important for the present study, because the time interval between readings was not regular, although it was normally almost monthly. Therefore, the daily diameter increment (DI_daily) was calculated considering the time opportunity for the trees trunk to grow, as expressed in the Eq. 4:

$${DI}_{daily}=\frac{DI}{ND}$$

where DI_daily is the daily diameter increment (cm day^− 1), DI is the diameter increment observed between two consecutive readings (cm) and ND is the number of days elapsed between two consecutive readings (days).

In order to demonstrate the similarity of the DI_daily series in analysis, the pairwise t-test was applied, evaluating the mean differences between the observations (TOLOI and ECHEVERRY 2000). The use of the pairwise t-test is effective in situations like this where there are few observations. Each treatment was individually tested against the others by means of successive tests, performed in order to identify which groups have means different each other. The correction of Holm-Bonferroni Method was applied for preventing false positives.

2.4. Analysis of the relation between diameter growth and climate variables

The climate conditions during the experimental period was evaluated considering the air temperature (ºC) and precipitation (mm). Data was obtained from a weather station, located 7 km far, at Ponta Porã city, maintained by the INMET (National Institute of Meteorology).

The daily data series comprehended the period of November 2014 to September 2016, the same period in which the diameter growth of the eucalyptus trees was monitored. For the air temperature, mean data was used, while the total was for precipitation.

The analysis regarding the relation between diameter growth and climate conditions considered the temporal dynamics of the DI_daily in face of the temporal dynamics of the air temperature and precipitation. For this analysis it was investigated if there is any kind of patter that allows to suggest which climate conditions may result in higher or lower diameter growth of the eucalyptus trees.

Furthermore, it was explored the correlation analysis between DI_daily and air temperature and precipitation for intervals almost bimonthly (+/- 61 days). The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used, which consider the possibility of values between − 1 and + 1, evidencing strong and negative correlation when tending to -1, no correlation when tending to 0 and strong and positive correlation when tending to + 1.

3.1. Diameter growth

When monitoring began (at 4 years and 9 months after transplanting) the eucalyptus trees cultivated as a forest had lower DBH (21.4 cm) as compared to the others production systems (from 22.7 to 23.2 cm) (Fig. 5A and Table 2). After 22 months, this initial difference of 1.3 to 1.8 cm has increased till the end of the monitoring (at 6 years and 7 months after transplanting). At that moment, the eucalyptus in the forest presented DBH of 24.7 cm, while the others production systems resulted in DBH of 27.2 to 27.7 cm, therefore a difference of 2.5 to 3 cm.

Table 2

– Analysis of eucalyptus diameter growth (DBH; cm) cultivated in different production systems (forest and iCLF, integrated crop-livestock-forest), before the monitoring and during the monitoring period (from 4 years and 9 months after transplanting to 6 years and 7 months).
Production system	DBH_ini	DBH_end	I DBH_mp	AI DBH_bmp	AI DBH_mp
Forest	21.4	24.7	3.4	4.5	1.8
iCLF 12.5x12.5	23.1	27.2	4.1	4.9	2.1
iCLF 12.5x25	23.2	27.7	4.5	4.9	2.3
iCLF 25x25	22.7	27.3	4.6	4.8	2.4

DBH_ini = DBH at the beginning of the monitoring; DBH_end = DBH at the end of the monitoring; I DBH_mp = increment in DBH during the monitoring period; AI DBH_bmp = annual increment in DBH before the monitoring period; AI DBH_mp = annual increment in DBH during the monitoring period.

During the monitoring period, the observed increment in DBH (Fig. 5B and Table 2) was higher for the agroforestry systems (4.1 to 4.6 cm) as compared to the forest (3.4 cm). Such increment was as higher as larger the distance between the eucalyptus rows, being the values measured for the iCLF 12.5x25 and iCLF 25x25 very close to each other (4.5 and 4.6, respectively). On the other hand, the treatment iCLF 12.5x12.5 showed a lower value (4.1 cm), demonstrating a certain level of intraspecific competition, but with a growth pattern that remained higher than that observed for the forest.

The diameter growth rhythm was influenced by the time after the production systems implantation. The annual increment in DBH was equal to 4.5 cm year^− 1 for the forest before the monitoring period, what represented 92 to 94% of the growth rhythm observed in the trees of the agroforestry systems (Table 2). However, as can be noted in Fig. 5B and Table 2, during the monitoring period this difference has increased, since the annual increment in DBH for the forest (1.8 cm year^− 1) stayed between 75 and 86% of the observed in the agroforestry systems.

The calculated DI_daily for the eucalyptus trees showed variation during the monitoring period and an overall tendency of higher values when cultivated in the agroforestry systems as compared to the forest (Fig. 6). The mean DI_daily was 0.0048, 0.0060, 0.0065 and 0.0068 cm day^− 1 for the forest, iCLF 12.5x12.5, iCLF 12.5x25 and iCLF 25x25 treatments, respectively. Therefore, as compared to the forest, the growth rhythm of the eucalyptus in iCLF 12.5x12.5 was 24.7% higher, 35% for the iCLF 12.5x25 and 40.9% for the iCLF 25x25. This finding corroborates with FARIA et al. (2015), which states that as bigger as is the distance between eucalyptus rows, higher should be their increment in diameter.

The findings presented above was confirmed in the statistical analysis presented in Table 3. Considering the significance level of 95%, the pairwise t-test, applied to evaluate the DI_daily series in Fig. 6, rejects the hypothesis that the treatments are similar. Therefore, the daily eucalyptus diameter growth among the treatments are different, being the forest lower than all other agroforestry treatment. In addition, results of the Table 3 shows that iCLF 12.5x12.5 can be considered equal to iCLF 12.5x25, but is lower when compared to iCLF 25x25. Finally, iCLF 12.5x25 and iCLF 25x25 can be considered one equal to the other.

Table 3

– Results of the pairwise t-test applied to the data series of daily increment in diameter (DI_daily) of the eucalyptus trees grown in different production systems (forest and iCLF, integrated crop-livestock-forest).
	Forest	iCLF 12.5x12.5	iCLF 12.5x25
iCLF 12.5x12.5	0.0193	-	-
iCLF 12.5x25	0.0012	0.1042	-
iCLF 25x25	0.0003	0.0314	0.4946
Note: p value ≤ 0.05 means different and > 0.05 means equal.

In the forest, because it is a dense population, the intraspecific competition is higher if compared to the iCLF systems studied here, since in the later each eucalyptus rows has larger distances one from each other. This fact justifies the lower values of DBH in the forest system, as well as the lower diameter growth rhythm of the trees in it. As stated by GILAD (2008), the intraspecific competition is a type of competition between individuals of a same species, competing for resources like water, space, light, nutrients, etc., imputing a restricted offer to each individual, what may result in effects like the reduction of its growth, as observed in the present study.

Similar behavior was observed by OLIVEIRA at al. (2009) in a study conducted at Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The authors evaluated the effect of different planting design over the DBH of an E. camaldulensis and E. urophylla hybrid, finding that, even for younger trees (18 to 27 months old), the DBH was as lower as the shorter was the spacing between trees at the planted forest. In OLIVEIRA et al. (2015), authors found higher diameter growth and height of a clone of E. grandis in an iCLF system as compared to the planted forest, what corroborated the findings of the present study.

Given that the diameter growth of eucalyptus trees proved to be higher in agroforestry systems, like iCLF, this puts theses production systems as possible alternatives when the farmer intends to harvest timber with a desired diameter in a smaller time interval (precocity) or when the intention is to harvest timber with bigger diameters, to be used in nobler applications. Independent of the wish, the whole field in iCLF still able to be used for other economic activities, such as agriculture or livestock, being the challenge of the farmer or the technicians to equalize the benefits or the loss of having less or more trees in the field.

3.2. Relation between diameter growth and climate variables

When compared the monthly measured precipitation and the normal values (as presented in Fig. 1), stay clear that the experimental period was of above-normal precipitation, since in 12 of 22 months the precipitation was at least 20% above normal, in six months they stayed normal (between 20% above or under normal) and only in four months the precipitation occurred at least 20% under normal (Table 4).

Table 4

– Monthly precipitation during the experimental period and verification of their adherence to the normality. There was assumed as normality limits, 20% above or under the normal value.
Month	Observed (mm)	Normal* (mm)	% difference	Situation
Nov-2014	233	189.6	22.9	↑ Above
Dec-2014	136.4	185.2	-26.3	↓ Under
Jan-2015	264.4	178.3	48.3	↑ Above
Feb-2015	183.4	173.1	6.0	≈ Normal
Mar-2015	177.4	165.8	7.0	≈ Normal
Apr-2015	141	132.6	6.3	≈ Normal
May-2015	262.4	132.2	98.5	↑ Above
Jun-2015	88.8	96.1	-7.6	≈ Normal
Jul-2015	233.8	55.8	319.0	↑ Above
Aug-2015	17.6	52.8	-66.7	↓ Under
Sep-2015	246.6	111.9	120.4	↑ Above
Oct-2015	175	193.7	-9.7	≈ Normal
Nov-2015	302.8	189.6	59.7	↑ Above
Dec-2015	379.8	185.2	105.1	↑ Above
Jan-2016	217.6	178.3	22.0	↑ Above
Feb-2016	356.2	173.1	105.8	↑ Above
Mar-2016	148.6	165.8	-10.4	≈ Normal
Apr-2016	163.2	132.6	23.1	↑ Above
May-2016	296	132.2	123.9	↑ Above
Jun-2016	37	96.1	-61.5	↓ Under
Jul-2016	23	55.8	-58.8	↓ Under
Aug-2016	149	52.8	182.2	↑ Above

* Normal values obtained from SOUZA (2018), as can be seen in Fig. 1.

As disposed in Fig. 6 on an almost monthly scale, Fig. 7 refers to an analysis of almost bimonthly data (± 61 days) regarding the DI_daily and climate variables, i.e. air temperature and precipitation. Such scale adjustment was made in order to smooth the data, since for forest species, including eucalyptus, there is a tendency of the growth to be a response of stimuli occurred a long time ago, not necessarily occurred in the same month, for example.

Regarding the climate variables, precipitation presented much more variation if compared to the air temperature (Fig. 7), with the rainiest two months occurring in the summer of 2015/2016 (643.6 mm), while the driest two months occurred during the winter of 2015 (165.8 mm). The graphics in Fig. 7 suggests a connection between DI_daily series of all treatments and precipitation, but not with temperature.

The strength of these connections was evaluated by means of the Pearson correlation coefficient (Fig. 8), which revealed little or no influence of air temperature over eucalyptus trees diameter growth, both for the forest and agroforestry systems (r values close to 0). This was possibly a consequence of eucalyptus environmental adaptation to the studied region, since there, mean monthly air temperature stays normally between 17.9 and 25 ºC, as disposed in Fig. 1. This range is largely considered favorable to eucalyptus growth, as sustained by QUEIROZ et al. (2020), who considers temperatures form 6 to 31 ºC as an adequate range, with optimum values between 18 to 22 ºC. Similar results were found by RYAN et al. (2020), who evaluated eight commercial forestry plantations in different production poles in Brazil. They concluded that air temperature have no influence over eucalyptus growth in situations where water is not considered a limiting factor. The authors suggests that air temperature might be of some influence only in situations where there is significant water restriction.

Unlike air temperature, precipitation proved to be of great influence over eucalyptus diameter growth, favoring it. This was evidenced by means of the Pearson correlation coefficients that varied from 0.42 to 0.63, with higher values being observed for the agroforestry systems. It demonstrates a major influence of the precipitation over the trees diameter growth when eucalyptus is cultivated in such integrated production systems.

Even that eucalyptus is a perennial species with deep root system, precipitation is a crucial factor that strongly drives eucalyptus diameter growth, since it dictates the soil water balance and, consequently, the level in which the eucalyptus water requirement is satisfied. In this regard, although CHRISTINA et al. (2017) emphasizes the role of deep roots to the eucalyptus survival during dry periods, there are the top soil layered roots the responsible for providing dynamism to the water use and, consequently, to the diameter growth, diminishing it during periods of water restriction and increasing when water is available.

Previous studies in eucalyptus forests demonstrated that the growth parameters are increased by the effect of irrigation. STAPE et al. (2004) found that the level of water supply was an important factor that limited trees growth. They also found that, when eucalyptus was irrigated, the wood productivity was increased by 52%, while the water use has increased only 15%. Similar results were found by REIS et al. (2006), showing that irrigation has resulted in trees with increased DBH and wood volume, although trees height were not influenced. Finally, RYAN et al. (2020), after evaluating eight commercial forestry plantations in different production poles in Brazil, were conclusive when stating that the water supply is the key resource determining levels of plantation productivity in Brazil. They endorsed the idea that irrigation can aid the eucalyptus to reach its full productivity potential.

Therefore, considering the potential benefits of the irrigation practice to the eucalyptus and taking into account the greater responsiveness of the iCLF to the water availability as compared to a planted forest (previously demonstrated in the present study), these suggests that there is potential for using irrigation in iCLF production systems. This probably should be done using localized irrigation methods, applying water close to the trees rows, instead of spraying it over the whole area, unless there is a wish to also supply water to the inter-row crops. Although the economic feasibility should be considered, the irrigation adoption may perhaps be positive for the eucalyptus growth and precocity in iCLF, what deserves more research because they are scarce.

As compared to a planted forest, eucalyptus diameter growth is higher when it is cultivated in agroforestry systems, like the integrated crop-livestock-forest (iCLF) systems tested in this study. Such diameter growth is as higher as larger is the distance between eucalyptus rows in the agroforestry production system.

Precipitation proved to strongly and positively influence eucalyptus diameter growth, especially when cultivated in agroforestry systems. Differently, under the conditions of this study, air temperature showed little or no influence over eucalyptus diameter growth.

FUNDING

This work was supported by the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa); Fundação de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento do Ensino, Ciência e Tecnologia do Estado de Mato Grosso do Sul (Fundect); and Rede ILPF.

The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

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No competing interests reported.

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published 27 Dec, 2023

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Diameter Growth of Eucalyptus Trees in Agroforestry Systems and Its Relation to Air Temperature and Precipitation

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

2. Materials And Methods

2.1. Location and characterization of the environment

2.2. Experimental area, design and treatments

2.3. Diameter growth monitoring

2.4. Analysis of the relation between diameter growth and climate variables

3. Results And Discussion

3.1. Diameter growth

3.2. Relation between diameter growth and climate variables

4. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1