In order to test the given hypothesis, multiple linear regression analysis was conducted with an objective to examine the predictive relationship between predictor variables (parent adolescent relationship, peer pressure, emotional maturity, resilience) and criterion variable (psychological well-being) used for the study. As a prerequisite all the assumptions to carry out the multiple regression analysis were tested i.e., normality of the distribution of variables, linearity of the relationship between predictors and criterion variable, equality of variance and independence of variables. The normality of the data was checked with Skewness and Kurtosis coefficients, Histograms, and QQ plots which indicated that most of the items were normally distributed.
Table 1: Showing Summary of Robustness Checks for Multiple Regression Analysis among Adolescents of Working and Non-Working Mothers (N=520)
Criterion variable
|
Predictor variable
|
R2
|
Tests of Robustness
|
Robustness
|
Linearity
|
Multicollinearity
|
Normality Plots
|
Independence
|
Residual Plots
|
Tolerance & VIF
Range:
Tolerance- 0-1
VIF- 1-9
|
PP Plots
|
Durbin-Watson
Range: DW<3
|
Y1
|
X1
|
0.294
|
Satisfied
|
Tol: 0.743
VIF: 1.346
|
Satisfied
|
2.052
|
All satisfied
|
X2
|
Satisfied
|
Tol: 0.902
VIF: 1.108
|
Satisfied
|
X3
|
Satisfied
|
Tol: 0.817
VIF: 1.224
|
Satisfied
|
X4
|
Satisfied
|
Tol: 0.873
VIF: 1.145
|
Satisfied
|
Y1- Psychological well-being, X1- Emotional Maturity, X2- Resilience, X3- Parent Adolescent Relationship, X4- Peer Pressure
Table No. 1 is the Robustness Checks for Multiple Regression Analysis among Adolescents of Working and Non-Working Mothers (N=520). All the values and numbers stand as a testimony that using multiple regression is allowed. All the parameters are satisfactory as the values mention in the table indicate. So it must be concluded that robustness check is all satisfied.
Table 2: Showing Results of Stepwise Multiple Linear Regression Analysis by considering Emotional Maturity, Resilience, Parent Adolescent Relationship and Peer Pressure as Predictors of Psychological Well-Being among Adolescents of Working and Non- Working Mothers.
Criterion Variable: Psychological well-being (Y1)
Predictor Variables
|
Adolescents of Working and Non-working Mothers (N=520)
|
Standardized Coefficients
|
Multiple R
|
R2
|
R2 change
|
ƒ2
|
F
change
|
p-value
|
Beta
|
X3
|
0.390
|
0.39
|
0.152
|
--
|
0.179
|
92.900
|
.0001**
|
X3, X2
|
0.276
|
0.471
|
0.222
|
0.070
|
0.285
|
46.588
|
.0001**
|
X3, X2, X4
|
0.219
|
0.542
|
0.294
|
0.042
|
0.416
|
30.445
|
.0001**
|
X3, X2, X1, X1
|
-0.187
|
0.502
|
0.252
|
0.030
|
0.337
|
20.438
|
.0001**
|
Constant
|
131.991
|
|
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
Y1- Psychological well-being, X1- Emotional Maturity, X2- Resilience, X3- Parent Adolescent Relationship, X4- Peer Pressure
Table 2 shows the regression coefficient values for different predictor variables and criterion variable. From table 2 it can be observed that the model explained 29.4 percent of the variance and that the model was a significant predictor of psychological well-being.
By considering F value of parent adolescent relationship (X3) (F= 92.900, p < 0.01), resilience (X2) (F= 46.588, p < 0.01), peer pressure (X4) (F=30.445, p < 0.01), and emotional maturity (X1) (F= 20.438, p < 0.01), it can be concluded that parent adolescent relationship (X3), resilience (X2), peer pressure (X4), and emotional maturity (X1) contributed significantly in predicting psychological well-being (Y1). Further, value of Cohen’s effect size (f 2 = 0.416) suggested the strength of association of parent adolescent relationship, resilience, peer pressure, and emotional maturity with psychological well-being to be large.
Thus, HA1 stating that “Parent adolescent relationship, peer pressure, emotional maturity, resilience will predict psychological well-being among adolescents of working and non-working mothers” is supported.
Parent adolescent relationship (X3) was shown to be the most significant predictor of psychological well-being (Y1) among adolescents of working and non-working mothers (Table 2). The value of square of multiple correlations (R2) shows that parent adolescent relationship (X3) contributed to 15.2 percent of the variance in psychological well-being (Y1). It can also be seen that resilience (X2) contributed as the second potential predictor of psychological well- being (Y1) (R2 change = 7% variance), peer pressure (X4) contributed as third significant factor (Y1) (R2 change= 4.2% variance) and emotional maturity (X1) also significantly predicted the psychological well-being (Y1) (R2 change= 3% variance).
The beta values of parent adolescent relationship (X3) (ß= 0.390), resilience (X2) (ß= 0.276), peer pressure (X4) (ß= 0.219), and emotional maturity (X1) (ß= -0.187) suggest that all these predictors significantly contribute to the psychological well- being (Y1). Further, it can be seen that parent adolescent relationship (X3) has the highest coefficient (ß= 0.390) followed by resilience (X2) (ß= 0.276), peer pressure (X4) (ß= 0.219), and emotional maturity (X1) (ß=-0.187) respectively. The negative beta value of emotional maturity (ß=-0.187) indicates that more emotional immaturity in adolescents will result in low psychological well-being among adolescents of working and non-working mothers.
The results indicate that the manner in which adolescents perceive their relationship with their parents significantly contributed to the psychological well-being of adolescents of working and non-working mothers which means that when the parent adolescent relationship is assessed as cordial, caring, and supportive by the adolescents, they feel more satisfied and happier thus, experiencing a greater sense of psychological well-being. Resilience among adolescents was found to be another protective and contributing factor in increasing their psychological well-being which means that their ability to cope with the negative situations and overcome the adversities make them feel more positive and happier with their lives. They enjoy better interpersonal relations and feel motivated. It has also been found that emotional maturity is a critical factor in predicting psychological well-being of adolescents, which means that adolescents who possess higher emotional maturity were more stable and had better control over their emotions. They are more capable of making smooth adjustments to the transitions and thus, experience better psychological well-being (higher scores indicate emotional immaturity and vice versa). Thus, if they are able to take control of their emotions they feel better about their lives and experience positive meaning in their lives. Among other environmental factors, peer pressure was also found to predict the psychological well-being of adolescents of working and non- working mothers. It can be assumed that though adolescents assess high level of parent adolescent relationship, yet they feel more influenced by the peer group pressure. Peer pressure, if taken in a positive essence can build a positive competition among adolescents and can help them boost up their confidence and has a protective role to play in promoting their psychological well-being. Also, a supportive and healthy relation with the friends resulted in contributing towards their well-being.
To provide support to the findings of the study, there are researches which have also reported the predictive role of parent adolescent relationship. The combined role of the factors like social support and attachment with parents, peers, school, and community has been considered very important in promoting a sense of well-being among adolescents (Gerard & Buehler, 2004; Jose, Ryan, & Pryor, 2012; McGrath, Brennan, Dolan, & Barnett, 2009). Parental attachment and social support from parents and peers thus, has a positive role in promoting psychological well-being among adolescents with self-esteem as a mediating role (Poudel, Gurung, & Khanal, 2020; Singh, Gupta, & Bakshi, 2021). Many other studies which have revealed that resilience, coping, self-esteem, locus of control, hope, happiness, parental attachment, parental and peer support significantly predicted psychological well- being among adolescents (Beri & Dorji, 2021; Cicognani, 2011; Corsano, Majorano, & Champretavy, 2006; Hasnain, Wazid, & Hasan, , 2014; Lai & Mak, 2009; Malkoc & Yalcin, 2015; Souri & Hasanirad, 2011). Literature also supports the findings and suggests that resilience and locus of control of young adolescents predicts their self- esteem which can make them have better self-evaluations, thereby, promoting a sense of well-being among them (Adak & Sarkar, 2021). Resilience has also been studied for its predictive role in predicting life satisfaction, positive affect among adolescents asa measure of psychological well- being (Cohn, Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels, & Conway, 2009; Li & Hasson, 2020). This implies that a high resilience among adolescents make them overcome the stressful situations in a better way, thus contributing towards their psychological well-being. The current findings also suggest that resilience in adolescents has a direct bearing on their feeling of happiness and satisfaction with life. There are studies which have emphasized on the predictive role of emotional competence in assessing the overall well-being among adolescents. The results suggest that when these young individuals feel themselves to be competent in managing and regulating their emotions, maintaining richer and positive social connections, they feel more competent to make smoother adjustments,
and demonstrate better coping strategies, thus experiencing higher levels of well-being (Masrat, Wani, & Alam, 2015; Zeidner & Olnick-Shemesh, 2010).
Table 3 Comparison of Mean Scores of Adolescents of Working (WM) and Non-working Mothers (NWM) on Psychological Well-being, Emotional Maturity, Resilience, Parent Adolescent Relationship and Peer Pressure.
Variables
|
Adolescents of
|
N
|
Mean
|
S D
|
t-value
|
p-value
|
|
WM
|
260
|
115.51
|
26.90
|
.209
|
>.05
|
Emotional Maturity
|
NWM
|
260
|
115.98
|
24.25
|
|
|
|
WM
|
260
|
71.52
|
11.14
|
.030
|
> .05
|
Resilience
|
NWM
|
260
|
71.55
|
12.30
|
|
|
Parent Adolescent Relationship
|
WM
|
260
|
6.36
|
1.25
|
.622
|
> .05
|
NWM
|
260
|
6.42
|
1.15
|
|
|
|
WM
|
260
|
156.93
|
23.90
|
.208
|
> .05
|
Peer Pressure
|
NWM
|
260
|
157.35
|
21.69
|
|
|
|
WM
|
260
|
189.12
|
19.55
|
2.017*
|
<.05
|
Psychological well-being
|
NWM
|
260
|
192.56
|
19.37
|
|
|
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
Table 3 further shows that the mean scores of adolescents of working and non- working mothers on parent adolescent relationship do not differ significantly (t=.622, p>.05).
Thus, our hypothesis HA2 which states that “There is significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on parent adolescent relationship” is not supported.
The results show that adolescents of working and non-working mothers assess their relationship with their parents to be cordial and do not differ on parent adolescent relationship. The available literature shows that many earlier studies have focused on the different aspects as parental control on the daily activities of adolescents, parental communication with adolescents, the disagreements and conflict on daily issues, and closeness to parents as important measures of parent adolescent relationship. The current findings are supported by the findings of earlier research which showed that adolescents of working and non-working mothers were not found to differ on degree of closeness to parents, degree of participation in school activities, parental interest, support in school and personal problems (Propper, 1972). It was also found that adolescents of employed and non-employed mothers did not show difference on attachment in parent child relationship, though the total attachment between parents and adolescents was found to be less (Almani, Abro, & Mugheri, 2012).
Table 3 show that adolescents of working and non-working mothers do not differ on peer pressure as the difference between mean scores of adolescents of working and non-working mothers is not significant (t= .208, p>,05).
This states that the hypothesis HA3 which states that “There is significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on peer pressure” is not supported.
Though the results indicate that adolescents of working and non-working mothers do not differ on the peer pressure experienced by them, the available literature does not provide much evidence for the results. There are not many studies which have focused on peer pressure experienced by adolescents based on their mother’s employment. In a study by Umashankari, Kiran Babu, & Daspurkayastha, (2020), it was shown that adolescents of working mothers experienced more peer pressure in comparison to their counterparts whose mothers were not working. Also, adolescents of working mothers were found to be show lower level of assertiveness and less effectiveness in their peer interactions (Hoffman, 1963). So, more research is needed to focus on the positive and negative influence of peer pressure in adolescents as this aspect is of utmost importance and has a strong bearing on the personality of the young individuals.
Table 3 reveals that there is no significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on their emotional maturity (t=.209, p>.05).
Thus, hypothesis HA4 which states that “There is significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on emotional maturity” is not supported.
The earlier researches on emotional maturity of adolescents of working and non- working mothers have provided mixed results. Supporting the current findings, the results of few earlier studies have found the difference in the emotional maturity of adolescents of working and non-working mothers as insignificant (Dhawan & Sharma, 2012; Gakhar, 2003; Yashodha & Devi, 2017). These findings suggest that the adolescents are in the process of attaining emotional maturity. Moreover, with the passage of time more and more mothers taking up employment has resulted in gradual acceptance of their role as a bread winner. As maternal employment is gaining gradual acceptance among families and is no more associated with a social stigma usually attached with it, more focus has been on assessing the positive outcomes for adolescents.
As it is evident from table 3, the differences in the mean scores of adolescents of working and non-working mothers on resilience are not significant (t=.030, p>.05).
Thus, our hypothesis HA5 which states that “There is significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on resilience” is not supported.
Though the present results have not witnessed significant difference on resilience between the adolescents of working and non-working mothers, still it is imperative to focus on the development of resilience among adolescents and children as it acts a protective factor to deal with the adversities and negative influences which commonly confront all individuals. Most of the available literature has examined the protective role resilience plays in maintaining positive well-being and adjustment in adolescents.
Table 3 shows that adolescents of working and non-working mothers differ significantly on their psychological well-being (t=2.017, p<.05). The results indicate that adolescents of non-working mothers show a higher psychological well-being than the adolescents of working mothers.
Thus, the hypothesis HA6 which states that “There is significant difference between adolescents of working and non-working mothers on psychological well-being” is supported.
Table 3 shows that the mean scores of adolescents of non-working mothers were more than those of adolescents of working mothers on the psychological well-being. This reveals that adolescents of non-working mothers possessed greater satisfaction, better mental health and experienced positive interpersonal relations than adolescents of working mothers. The current findings are supported by the results of earlier research which have shown a significant effect of mother’s employment on the well- being of adolescents and its correlates in terms of life satisfaction, self-esteem, positive and negative affect, subjective and psychological well-being, though the earlier studies have reported mixed results. Many earlier studies have provided sufficient evidence to support the current findings as the results have shown that adolescents of non-working mothers were found to possess a higher psychological well-being (Dunifon, Kalil, & Bajracharya, 2005; Dutta & Das, 2010; Perry-Jenkins, & Gillman, 2000), as well as better subjective well-being (Jose, 1998) than adolescents of non- working mothers.
Implications:
- The findings of the study can provide a deep insight in the realm of research to propose some prolific implications and interventions. These implications will provide help to people to improve the quality of life and to promote happiness and well-being at individual and community level as happiness is the most desirable goal for all individuals.
- Results would provide concrete help to all those who work in close connection with adolescents as parents, educationists, counselors, psychiatrists, social workers, policy makers, educationists and researchers. This will help the adolescents to experience a positive state of mental health.
Delimitations of the study:
- Keeping in mind the population of the study, there was the limitation regarding the size of the sample. The sample size was limited.
- The study is limited to the respondents living in intact two parent families.
- Only five districts of Punjab were selected.
Scope for future Research:
Thus, taking the limitations of this study into consideration, there are several recommendations for future research which are given below:
- The factors under consideration in the current study can be used for other population with certain disabling conditions or living in adverse conditions as adolescents living in orphanages or juvenile homes.
- Further research can explore different aspects of the problem with the use of alternate research design and statistical techniques to get additional insight for the well-being of adolescents.
- More studies can be carried out to assess other positive intervention variables such as optimism, locus of control, self-esteem, hardiness, spiritualism in enhancing the psychological well-being of adolescents.