Rehabilitation delivery models to foster healthy ageing – a scoping review

Background: Rehabilitation is essential to foster healthy ageing. Older adults have unique rehabilitation needs due to a higher prevalence of non-communicable diseases, susceptibility to infectious diseases like COVID-19, injuries, and mental health conditions. However, there is a limited understanding of how rehabilitation is delivered to the ageing population. To address this gap, we conducted a scoping review to describe rehabilitation delivery models used to optimise the ageing population's functioning/functional ability and foster healthy ageing. Methods: We searched Medline and Embase (January 2015 to May 2022) for primary studies published in English describing approaches to provide rehabilitation in people older than 50. Three authors screened records for eligibility and extracted data independently and in duplicate. Data synthesis included descriptive quantitative analysis of study and rehabilitation provision characteristics, and qualitative analysis to identify rehabilitation delivery models. Results: Out of 6,933 identi�ed records, 585 articles were assessed for eligibility, and 283 studies with 69,257 participants were included. We identi�ed six rehabilitation delivery models: outpatient (24%), telerehabilitation (22%), home (18.5%), community (16.3%), inpatient (14.6%), and eldercare (4.7%). These models often involved multidisciplinary teams (31.5%) and follow integrated care principles (30.4%). Most studies used a disease-centred approach (59.0%), while studies addressing multimorbidity (6.0%) and prevalent health problems of ageing, such as pain, low hearing and vision, or incontinence were scarce. The most frequently provided interventions were therapeutic exercises (54.1%), self-management education (40.1%), and assessment of person-centred goals (40%). Other interventions, such as assistive technology (8.1%) and environmental adaptations (7.4%) were infrequent. Conclusions: We provided a comprehensive overview of six delivery models used to provide rehabilitation to the ageing population and highlight research gaps that require further attention, including a lack of systematic assessment of functioning/functional ability, a predominance of disease-centred rehabilitation, and scarcity of programs addressing prevalent issues like pain, hearing/vision loss, fall prevention, incontinence, and sexual dysfunctions. Our research can facilitate evidence-based decision-making and inspire further research and innovation in rehabilitation and healthy ageing. Limitations of our study include reliance on published research to infer practice and not assessing model effectiveness. Future research in the �eld is needed to expand and validate our �ndings


Background
Worldwide rehabilitation needs are increasing due to, among others, the global demographic shift towards rapid population ageing (1).The landmark World Report on Ageing and Health (WRAH) showed that the proportion and the absolute number of older people are increasing exponentially.By 2050, people older than 60 will exceed 30% of the population in many high-and middle-income countries (2), and globally, this proportion will rise from 14% in 2022 to 21.4% in 2050 (3).Moreover, the population ageing rate is now greater.For example, France had 150 years to adapt from 10-20% in the proportion of the population older than 60; however, countries like Brazil and India will only have 20 years to adapt (2).
In 2019, 1 in 3 persons (2.41 billion) had health conditions that would bene t from rehabilitation during their disease.Musculoskeletal and neurological disorders, sensory impairments, and chronic respiratory diseases are the most signi cant contributors to the needs of people older than 65 (1).Nevertheless, rehabilitation needs remain largely unmet across age groups.In LMICs, as much as 50% of people do not receive the rehabilitation they need (4).Aware of the urgency to strengthen health services to provide rehabilitation, the 2023 WHO Executive Board has recommended the World Health Assembly (WHA) will be evaluating a resolution about "Strengthening rehabilitation in health systems".If approved, members states will commit, among others, to "expand rehabilitation to all levels of health, from primary to tertiary, and to ensure the availability and affordability of quality and timely rehabilitation services" (5).
The ageing population has unique rehabilitation needs related to a higher prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), the increased susceptibility to severe consequences from infectious diseases like coronavirus disease (COVID-19), injuries and an increasing incidence of mental health conditions.In 2019, NCDs accounted for 73.6% of deaths worldwide, an increase of 12.8% compared to 2000(6).Similarly, NCDs are the most important causes of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) in people older than 50 (7).The COVID-19 pandemic stressed the vulnerability of the ageing population.In the United States (US), individuals aged 85 years and above had an average death rate that was 350 times greater and an average hospitalization rate that was 15 times greater than individuals aged 18 to 29 years(8).Similarly, injuries cause high mortality, morbidity and disability in the ageing population (9,10,11), and 2022 reports suggest that 20% of older adults meet the criteria for a mental health diagnosis (12).Recognising the growing and unmet needs of the ageing population, the United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have declared 2021-2030 the "Decade of Healthy Ageing (hereafter referred to as the Decade)" (13).
Healthy ageing has been de ned as "the process of developing and maintaining the functional ability that enables well-being in older age" (14), and have 2 components: intrinsic capacity -understood as all the mental and physical capabilities of an individual -as well as the functional abilitythe outcome of the interaction between IC and the built, social, attitudinal and political context of a person (14).Functioning -as introduced by WHO in the International Classi cation of functioning Disability and Health (ICF) -is the outcome of complex interactions between the health state of an individual and the physical, interpersonal, and social environment (15,16).From a conceptual perspective, "functional ability" and "functioning" are equivalent concepts and can be used interchangeably.Improving "functional ability" or "functioning" is rehabilitation's main objective (17).
Rehabilitation -"a set of interventions designed to optimise functioning and reduce disability in individuals with health conditions in interaction with their environment"(18) -is, for three main reasons, an essential health strategy for addressing the most important challenges raised in the Decade (19,20).Firstly, rehabilitation aims to improve functioning, which is critical for achieving the Decade's goals of maintaining the ability to perform daily activities, preserving social participation, and meaningful life roles as people age(21).Secondly, rehabilitation considers the individual and contextual factors that affect people's functioning, including the physical, social, and attitudinal environment they live in, as well as their personal characteristics (15).This approach aligns with the Decade's goal of building supportive environments.Thirdly, rehabilitation places the individual at the centre of the care process, considering their unique needs, preferences, and goals(22), in line with the Decade's objective of providing integrated and person-centred care that addresses older adults' physical, mental, and social needs(21).Evidence shows that when integrated into health systems, rehabilitation effectively reduces morbidity and mortality (23,24), improve functioning/functional ability (25,26,27,28,29), and prolongs independent living (24,30).Therefore, strengthening rehabilitation services for older adults should be a key priority for policymakers and stakeholders involved in achieving the Decade's goals.Although rehabilitation's importance for healthy ageing is recognised in the WHO baseline report(21), it has not yet lived up to its potential in the Decade's agenda.A possible reason might be the lack of concrete guidance for health professionals and policymakers.Open questions are, for instance, which rehabilitation services are the most relevant to the ageing population, how should they be delivered or who could bene t from them?Understanding how rehabilitation is offered to the ageing population is an essential starting point toward more responsive rehabilitation services.
The objective of this scoping review was to provide a systematic overview of rehabilitation delivery models used to optimise the ageing population's intrinsic capacity and functional ability.A scoping review was conducted for being the most appropriate methodology for examining emerging areas of knowledge, clarifying key concepts and identifying research gaps (31,32).The following research question was formulated: What is known from the scienti c literature about how rehabilitation is delivered to optimise the ageing population's intrinsic capacity and functional ability?The review will provide rehabilitation stakeholders and policy makers seeking to increase the responsiveness of health systems to the ageing population's growing rehabilitation needs with information needed to (re)design rehabilitation provision to foster healthy ageing.

Study design
We conducted a scoping review to provide a systematic overview of rehabilitation delivery models used to optimise the ageing population's intrinsic capacity and functional ability following the state-of-the-art method (32), and used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) (33).Checklist and study protocol are available in additional les 1 and 2, respectively.

Eligibility criteria
Population: A "study population's mean age higher than 50" was used to identify the "ageing population."This decision was based on evidence showing that countries with similar levels of age-related burden experience different onsets of ageing, with the lowest starting around 50 years (34).If the full-text paper did not report the mean population age, we included studies targeting diseases with incidence rates among the adult population increasing quadratically with age (34).We used a list of diseases from selected clusters de ned elsewhere (35).
Intervention: We included studies describing or testing approaches to provide rehabilitation.They must have had a su ciently detailed description of the rehabilitation interventions.We excluded papers focusing on describing needs, functional patterns, disability, risk factors, on testing the effect of a single intervention (e.g., botulinum toxin for spasticity), and studies without rehabilitation interventions.
Outcome: Studies aiming to enhance intrinsic capacity, functioning/functional ability (e.g., independence in activities of daily living (ADL), mobility or muscle strength, or social participation) were included.Studies focusing on morbidity, mortality, disease control or intervention adherence were excluded.
Publication Type: Reports resulting from primary research, excluding case reports and case series, were included.Books, reviews, position papers, guidelines, or research protocols were excluded.Setting: We did not limit study eligibility to any geographical location or level of care.
Language and publication date: We searched for papers published in English after the launch of the WRAH in 2015, (14) and up to May 2022.
Information sources and search strategy MEDLINE and EMBASE were systematically searched.We considered evidence about the optimal database combination for conducting scoping reviews for this selection(36).Four authors (VS, RM, CS and RB) developed the structured search strategy, which included natural language and Medical Subject Headings, grouped into three concepts, 1) rehabilitation, intrinsic capacity, functioning/functional ability, 2) models of care or health care approaches, and 3) ageing population.
The nal search strategy for both databases, including terms and lters applied can be found in additional le 3. The search results were exported into EndNote, where duplicates were removed.We complemented the search by scanning reference lists of systematic reviews identi ed during the title and abstract screening process.We anticipated an extensive body of evidence to ful l our study's objective in indexed databases; consequently, we did not search for grey literature.

Study selection process
Two researchers (RM, VS) and a student assistant independently screened abstracts using Rayyan; 50% of the records were double screened (37).
To ensure consistency in the decision process, we held training sessions and team meetings to clarify eligibility criteria and discuss open issues; three training rounds were required to reach at least 90% of agreement.Subsequently, three researchers (RM, PF and VS) and a student assistant assessed independently and in duplicate the full text of retained records for eligibility.Consensus and discussion with a third team member were used to solve disagreements on study selection and data extraction.

Data extraction process
We used four conceptual frameworks (38,39,40,41), described in the data synthesis section below, and input from rehabilitation and health systems research experts to develop the data-charting form, which included information regarding studies' characteristics, target population, rehabilitation service delivery and rehabilitation interventions (see additional le 2).The data extraction process began only after a high agreement (> 90%) was reached during the training sessions.Three researchers (RM, PF and VS) and a student assistant extracted data independently and in duplicate.
We did not appraise methodological quality or risk of bias, in line with scoping reviews' methodology (32,42), and with our goal of identifying and describing rehabilitation delivery models rather than assessing if the interventions or strategies used were effective.

Data synthesis
The synthesis included descriptive quantitative analysis (e.g., frequencies) of study characteristics, rehabilitation interventions, and rehabilitation services provision, and qualitative analysis to identify rehabilitation service delivery models.
To achieve a standard categorisation of rehabilitation interventions, we used the International Classi cation of Health Interventions (ICHI)(38), and the WHO packages of Interventions for rehabilitation (PIR)(39) included in the Universal Health Coverage Compendium (UHC).The term "rehabilitation intervention" corresponds to the "action" level in the ICHI and UHC taxonomies.Based on these frameworks, we prede ned six rehabilitation intervention categories: assessment, pharmacological agents, restorative and compensatory approaches, provision of assistive technology (AT), environmental adaptations (EAs), and education and advice.Finally, we used the International Classi cation of Service Organization in Rehabilitation (ICSO-R 2.0) (40), the Effective Practice and Organisation of Care taxonomy of Health Systems Interventions(41) and WHO's de nition of "model of care" (43) to identify and describe rehabilitation delivery models.The International Classi cation of Functioning Disability and Health (ICF)' linking rules (44) were used to categorise study outcomes.
We classi ed level of care into Primary Health Care (PHC), specialised care and a combination of both.Level of care was categorized as PHC when articles self-identi ed as PHC, when rehabilitation interventions were provided solely by PHC workers, including nurses or general practitioners in a traditional PHC setting (home or community) or when interventions provided did not require complex equipment or specialized training.Otherwise, studies were classi ed as specialised care, including secondary or tertiary level.Those in which both settings were observed, for example, services starting at a university hospital but continuing with a community exercise program, were classi ed as a combination of the two levels.Co-authors were regularly consulted to validate data categorisation.

Patient and public involvement statement
We did not include older persons, patients or patients' representatives in the scoping reviews' methodological design, conduct, reporting, or dissemination plan.

Study selection and characteristics
Figure 1 shows the PRISMA ow diagram, and Table 1 the most important characteristics of the 283 included studies (see more detail in additional les 4 and 5).Half of the studies were published in 6 countries: USA, Netherlands, Australia, China, the UK, and Korea.More than 85% of studies originated from high-income countries (HICs), 12% in upper-middle-income countries, 2% in lower-middle-income countries (LMICs), and only one in a low-income country (LICs), Uganda.Only 40 studies (14.1%) explicitly stated to foster healthy ageing, and 29 were published in 2021.We identi ed 1250 study outcome measures but selected and classi ed 769 relevant to our study's objective.We report in Table 1 the most frequent ones by categories and frequency of use.The most frequently reported outcome type was Health-related quality of life (HRQOL).Other outcome types were infrequent and not included in the table; for example, only 6.4% of the included studies measured the risk of falls, 4.6% well-being and 4.2% participation.(112) or population-speci c criteria.For example, "older 50 or 55 years" for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (113,114) or "older than 60 years" in the Netherlands but "older than 80 years" in Switzerland; (115) or comorbidities-adjusted age inclusion related criteria like "older than 65 years" in general but between 50-64 for people with a chronic health condition.(116)† Terminology and code of the International Classi cation of Functioning Disability and Health (ICF) Insert Table 1 here!

Rehabilitation programs' bene ciaries
Table 2 shows the most important characteristics of rehabilitation bene ciaries, who were on average 70.6 years old.Six studies included people with a mean age higher than 85, two from Japan (47,48).Women were the predominant population in 43.1% of the studies, and eight studies only included women.More than half of the studies selected the participants based on the presence of a single health condition (59%).Neurological conditions were most frequent.People with a decline in functional ability, which include decline functioning, fragility, or sarcopenia, accounted for 35% of the participants.Other populations like people with pain, low vision and hearing, and urinary dysfunctions were uncommonly addressed.
Four papers were about COVID-19 rehabilitation (49,50,51,52).We also sought to determine whether the rehabilitation programs included some evaluation of functioning/functional ability or intrinsic capacity.To that end, we grouped the following assessments: Assessment of overall functioning/functional ability, health status, emotional functions, cognitive functions, exercise capacity, independence in activities of daily living and Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment.Overall, 36.8% of studies used one of these measurements.

Models for rehabilitation service delivery
We use the word "model" to describe the approach by which rehabilitation services were provided to the person.The service delivery modes, which were collected during the data extraction process following the ICSO-R 2.0 classi cation, emerged as the natural categories for organizing and describing rehabilitation models during data synthesis.Most studies employed one (75.2%)or two (21.2%)delivery modes to provide rehabilitation services, with one study using four(58).Hereafter we will refer to these service delivery modes as rehabilitation delivery models.More information can be found in Table 4 and Additional le 6.

Outpatient rehabilitation
In this model, the person attended a health care facility to receive rehabilitation and came back to their place of origin.More than half of the studies, 51.7%, took place at specialised levels of care and only 18.4% at PHC. Outpatient rehabilitation focused on people with a mean age of 69.2, women (39.1%) and neurological conditions (33.9%), out of which stroke was the most frequent (19.7%).Besides the inpatient model, this was the only other model in which cognitive impairment was a frequent target (8.2% of the studies) and the only one in which psychologists were one of the most frequent rehabilitation providers.Multidisciplinary teams and integrated care principles were used in almost 40% of studies.Only 4 out of the 225 provided interventions included AT (59,60,61,62).An exemplary study tested the effectiveness of a self-management intervention aimed at proactive coping for stroke patients and partners(63).Another evaluated the experiences of community-dwelling older people with dementia participating in a person-centred multidimensional, interdisciplinary rehabilitation program(64).

Telerehabilitation
Rehabilitation was provided using telecommunication technologies, either synchronously, e.g., live consultation, or asynchronously, e.g., access to information and courses with subsequent feedback and follow-up.Telerehabilitation was also used to monitor participants' general health status, body functioning, activities, or participation.For example, some studies used automatic call systems for the early detection of complications.
Others used wearable devices to monitor physiological variables, changes in walking distance, or self-care behaviours.Although considered an outreach health strategy, sometimes classi ed as PHC, 72.5% of the services provided were specialised.It focused on a younger population (mean age 66.6), both men and women, with cardiorespiratory health conditions, including heart failure, COPD, and coronary heart disease.It was the model with the lowest frequency of papers targeting decline in functional ability and using integrated care principles.An exemplary study used telerehabilitation to ensure the continuity of care at home for patients with chronic neurological diseases(65), and another used mHealth interventions to improve heart failure self-care and support informal caregivers(66).

Home-based rehabilitation
Rehabilitation was provided at the person's home through PHC (35.8%), specialised care (31.3%) or a combination of both (32.8%).Specialised care at home was characterised by multidisciplinary teams and specialised health care professionals' home visits.

Rehabilitation in the community
Rehabilitation was provided in a community setting, for example, a community centre or a public recreational area.Most of the services offered were not specialised (81.4%), and it was the only model in which general practitioners were frequent rehabilitation providers.It focused on women (54.2%), with a mean age of 69.6, persons with neurological conditions (32.1%), and a general decline in functional ability (45.8%).We found ve papers using the community model to improve functioning in the ageing population with multimorbidity(68, 69, 70, 71).Task shifting was used in 15% of studies.It was the only model in which education for self-directed therapeutic exercise was a frequently provided intervention.One paper included the provision of AT (72), and three EA(58, 73,74).An exemplary study provided rehabilitation interventions in the community to prevent fragility and foster healthy ageing in Japan, (75) and two provided rehabilitation after stroke (27,76).

Inpatient rehabilitation
Rehabilitation was provided during an inpatient episode of care through either specialised (47.2%) or a combination of specialised and PHC (52.8%) care.Inpatient rehabilitation was often followed by outpatient (

Discussion
Focusing on primary studies, this scoping review provides an overview of rehabilitation delivery models that are used to foster healthy ageing.The six emerging models are outpatient, telerehabilitation, home, community, inpatient, and eldercare.These models were provided across levels of care (PHC, specialised care or a combination of both) mainly using a disease-centred perspective and frequently focusing on one neurological, musculoskeletal, or cardiovascular condition, with stroke targeted in almost a quarter of all included studies.Multimorbidity and prevalent health problems of the ageing population, like pain, low hearing, and vision, fall prevention, incontinence, or sexual dysfunctions, were infrequent rehabilitation targets.Multidisciplinary teams and principles of integrated care were frequently used to provide rehabilitation.The most common rehabilitation interventions included assessing person-centred goals and delivering therapeutic exercises as well as education and advice on selfcare.Assessing overall functioning, functional ability, or intrinsic capacity is the starting point of any rehabilitation process(88), however, only onethird of papers reported its assessment.Similarly, the provision of AT (e.g., orthosis or prosthesis) and EA (e.g., home adaptations for wheelchair accessibility) was rare, although this is one of the key determinants of functional ability of the ageing population(89, 90), and a core rehabilitation intervention.
WHO members states and key stakeholders have agreed in the WHO rehabilitation 2030 call for action that de ning essential rehabilitation interventions will facilitate the integration of rehabilitation in health systems (91).16).This person-and not disease-centred perspective makes rehabilitation suitable to address complex limitations in functioning, like the ones arising from multimorbidity (100,101).Multimorbidity, the co-occurrence of two or more chronic conditions (102), is present in around two-thirds of adults older than 60 (103).In contrast, almost 60% of included studies had a single disease-centred perspective, and only 6% addressed multimorbidity.This nding is in line with the challenges faced by WHO during the development of the PIRs: WHO had to follow a disease-centred approach because almost all scienti c evidence in rehabilitation was linked to single diseases (104).Perhaps, as a result, a PIR for ageing is not being developed yet, although this would considerably foster the access of the ageing population to rehabilitation, especially in LMICs.Ensuring that rehabilitation remains person-centred is essential for the ageing population, considering frequent multimorbidity or age-related impairments, and necessary to contribute to the healthy ageing agenda.
Primary healthcare (PHC) plays a critical role in establishing a sustainable health system that offers universal health coverage(105).Our review suggests, at least from a research perspective, that integrating rehabilitation services into PHC is a feasible approach for providing rehabilitation to the ageing population.Rehabilitation services have been traditionally centred on specialised care, and there are ongoing challenges to its delivery through PHC(106).This is in line with our results showing that almost 50% of rehabilitation services delivered were specialised.However, WHO has called to realign PHC, stressing that "most rehabilitation services can be provided outside hospital settings, in communities or at home." (57) Indeed, our review shows that more than 90% of rehabilitation in the community and almost 80% of home-based is delivered through PHC alone or in combination with specialised care.Models for the provision of rehabilitation in PHC have already been described for the general population, including "clinic, outreach, self-management, community-based, shared care, and case management" (107).A similar in-depth understanding of how rehabilitation is currently delivered through PHC for the ageing is still needed to guide the efforts required to strengthen PHC to provide rehabilitation.
This review reveals a surprisingly high involvement of health workers not traditionally considered rehabilitation workers in rehabilitation delivery.
Usual rehabilitation providers are physical, occupational, and speech and language therapists; prosthetists and orthotists, psychologists and physical and rehabilitation medicine doctors(18, 106).However, in this review, nurses, general practitioners, specialised physicians including geriatricians, neurologists and cardiologists, dieticians, social and community workers, and exercise experts were the rehabilitation providers in half of the identi ed papers, while some traditional rehabilitation workers were relatively scarce.This can be explained by the large number of studies delivered through PHC, where rehabilitation professionals are generally unavailable and where task-shifting plays a crucial role in increasing access to health services,(106) especially in low-resource settings(108).Indeed, we frequently observed task-shifting from physical or occupational therapists to nurses.Our ndings point toward a new understanding of who is the rehabilitation workforce, especially if the calls for strengthening provision through PHC are followed(21, 91).Indeed, to meet the rehabilitation needs of the ageing population, the rehabilitation workforce mustn't always be restricted to traditional professional groups.However, as pointed out by WHO's rehabilitation competency framework (109) , training health workers becomes critical to ensure properly provided interventions and should focus on strengthening the health workforce's rehabilitation competencies.
Rehabilitation role in the UN and WHO the Decade of Healthy Ageing(13), needs to be strengthened and better speci ed.Albeit mentioned several times in the WRAH, the role of rehabilitation in the healthy ageing agenda has not been concretely de ned yet(21).Results of our review align with a recently created evidence and gap map for health and social support for the ageing population (110), showing that rehabilitation is already one of the most frequent interventions for the ageing population (111).Our detailed description of six service delivery models shows that rehabilitation is indeed provided to the ageing population across levels of care, through specialized and PHC, by multidisciplinary teams, following principles of integrated care and assessing person-centred goals.However, our work also points out shortcomings like a frequent disease-centred perspective, the rare focus on multimorbidity and age-related impairments, the seldom provision of AT and EAs and the inconsistent assessment of intrinsic capacity and functional ability.Given the potential of rehabilitation to meaningfully contribute to achieving healthy ageing, our results can be used by policymakers and key stakeholders to improve the responsiveness of rehabilitation to the ageing population.Additionally, a more prominent and better-de ned role of rehabilitation in key Decade documents like the WHO baseline report would provide rehabilitation stakeholders with essential guidance on what is needed.

Strengths and limitations:
Figures

Table 1
Most important characteristics of the included studies * Represents the proportion of included studies ** Finland, New Zealand, Portugal Chile, France, Mexico, Brazil, Greece, Iran, Singapore, Austria, Bangladesh, Croatia, Cyprus, India, Ireland, Israel, Malaysia, Nepal, Philippines, Poland, Switzerland, Uganda ***Refers to infrequent criteria like "between 40 and 67 years"

Table 2
Most important characteristics of rehabilitation programs' bene ciaries * Represents the proportion of included studies *** Include those with a decline in functioning, fragility, or sarcopenia **Parkinson's disease, Multiple Sclerosis, other neurological diseases not speci ed, Peripheral Artery Disease, chronic pain, Complex Regional Pain Syndrome, degenerative scoliosis, low back pain, rotator cuff tendinopathy, lower limb amputation, distal radius fracture, other fractures or injuries not speci ed, prostate cancer, lung cancer, lymphoma, other cancers not speci ed, sarcopenia, chronic kidney disease, Diffuse Cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis, in ammatory arthritis, vestibular dysfunction, vision impairment and, Human Immunode ciency Virus.COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019Rehabilitation service delivery

Table 3
(55)54)he most important service delivery characteristics.Rehabilitation was provided across levels of care through six service delivery modes: outpatient (30.7%), telerehabilitation (28.3%), home (23.7%), community (20.9%), inpatient (18.7%), and eldercare (6%).Health workers provided rehabilitation interventions in 93.7% of the studies.Excluding prosthetists and orthotists, all traditional rehabilitation workers were somewhat represented.The most frequent providers were physical therapists, present in 45.9% of studies.Multidisciplinary teams provided rehabilitation in 31.5% of studies.Role or task shifting or sharing was described in 13.4% of the studies, mainly by physical or occupational therapists towards nurses(53,54), community workers(55)or informal caregivers(56).More than 30% of papers provided rehabilitation following integrated care principles(57), 35.7% assessed person-centred goals, and 47% provided specialized care.Rehabilitation interventionsWe identi ed 1361 rehabilitation interventions (Table3).Although we prede ned six categories, during the data analysis another category of rehabilitation interventions emerged: "coordination and management of the rehabilitation process".This category accounted for 20% of all interventions provided and was used in more than half of the studies.Restorative and compensatory approaches were the most frequently used interventions.In contrast, interventions such as provision and training in the use of AT (8.1%), EAs (7.4%), and pharmacological agents (3.2%) were rarely reported.We found that therapeutic exercises (54.1%), education and skills training for self-care and self-management (41%), and assessment of personcentred goals and priorities (40%) were the most frequently utilized rehabilitation interventions and were commonly prescribed together.Examples of therapeutic exercises included muscle strengthening and balance training, functional exercises such as training in ADLs, aerobic exercise, and cognitive training.Furthermore, social care and support interventions such as assistance in ADLs and emotional support were provided in 16% of the studies in addition to rehabilitation.

Table 3
Service delivery characteristics and rehabilitation interventions music therapists, therapist assistants or students, gerontologists, researchers, health and welfare o cers and multidisciplinary teams, mental health workers or therapists not speci ed.†Rehabilitation intervention corresponds to the "action" level in the Universal Health Compendium taxonomy of interventions.‡Electromyography-triggeredneuromuscular stimulation, low vision rehabilitation, music therapy, swallowing therapy and wound care.ADL: Activities of daily living Insert Table3 here

Table 4
*Studies in which the target population was people with multimorbidity.†Studies in which the target population was people with a decline in functional ability, functioning, fragility, or sarcopenia.COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019, USA: United States of America, UK: United Kingdom.Other physicians included, neurologists, psychiatrists, cardiologists, neurosurgeons, radiologists, orthopaedic surgeons, and other physicians not speci ed.**Other health workers included, pharmacists, podiatrists, dance instructors, rehabilitation scientists, optometrists, home care assistants, music therapists, therapist assistants or students, gerontologists, researchers, health and welfare o cers and multidisciplinary teams, mental health workers or therapists not speci ed.†Multidisciplinary team de ned as more than 3 health workers.‡Included role or task shifting or sharing.
*Females: Females accounted for more than 60% of the study participants.Males: Males accounted for more than 60% of the study participants.Balanced: Neither females nor males represented more than 60% of the study population.** (47)tudies) or home-based rehabilitation (14 studies).Studies using this model focussed equally on men and women with a mean age of 74.5.It was the most frequently used model for people with stroke (44.4%), and was characterised by multidisciplinary care (52.8%), task shifting (15%), and the use of integrated care principles (73.6%).It was the only model in which therapeutic exercise was not the most frequently provided intervention.Instead, discharge planning (10%), assessment of person-centred goals (8%) and multicomponent rehabilitation (7.7%) played a prominent role.Discharge planning frequently included social workers coordinating discharge while considering the person's FA, for example, towards a skilled nursing facility, assisted living communities, or the person's home(77).It was the only model where "coordination and management of the rehabilitation process" was one of the most frequent interventions, including eight studies where rehabilitation physicians played a coordinating role(78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85).The provision of AT ( ve studies) and EA (three studies) were scarce.An exemplary study tested a novel Interdisciplinary rehabilitation program for hospitalised patients with COVID-19(51), and another examined the effect of interdisciplinary and comprehensive rehabilitation on physical functioning trajectories after hospitalisation(86).Rehabilitation was provided at eldercare facilities in 4.7% of the studies.Rehabilitation workers were part of the facilities personnel or commuted to deliver the services.Specialised services were frequent (47.1%), mostly due to the provision of rehabilitation by specialised health care workers, namely geriatricians.Eldercare-based rehabilitation focused on an older population (mean age 79.8), women (70%) and people with an overall decline in functional ability (64.7%).It was the only model where cognitive impairments were the most frequent intervention target (50%) and the only one in which cognitive rehabilitation was one of the most frequently provided interventions (6.3%).We observed the highest frequency of taskshifting or sharing to provide rehabilitation interventions(17.6%) in this model.Like the community model, only one study included providing AT and EAs.An exemplary study tested a national program to stimulate self-organising capacity to develop integrated care to improve geriatric rehabilitation service delivery(87).Another assessed the effects of group-based motor and cognitive-combined intervention on social activity and quality of life(47).
(99)ough research in AT seems to be a neglected issue in the general(94)and the ageing populations(95), the lack of standard rehabilitation interventions provision appears to be a characteristic of rehabilitation programs offered to the ageing population.To the best of our knowledge, there is only one comprehensive clinical practice guideline addressing rehabilitation needs of older adults(96).Other guidelines are discipline-based, only addressing occupational or physical therapy and do not describe services' provision organisation or characteristics(97, 98), or include general recommendations for rehabilitation but do not address models for service provision(99).A better match between the rehabilitation needs of the ageing population and rehabilitation interventions is very much needed and should be de ned in speci c clinical practice guidelines in line with the Decade's agenda.Rehabilitation interventions are provided to improve, maintain or slow down the decline in functional ability and intrinsic capacity by addressing speci c impairments in body functions, like muscle weakness or pain, limitations in activities, like walking around, or restrictions in participation, like joining family celebrations, as well as environmental barriers, regardless of the health condition causing them( To answer this call, WHO is developing Packages of Interventions for Rehabilitation (PIR), which will provide a prioritised set of evidence-based interventions for rehabilitation(92).Inspired by WHO´s work, we identi ed and classi ed rehabilitation interventions offered to the ageing population in line with the PIR.Although we found a broad range of interventions, our results do not fully align with the PIR preliminary results(39) and other documents mapping the needs of older adults(21, 93).For example, in the PIR, a prominent role is given to interventions targeting communication, speech, language, sensory, bowel, bladder or sexual functions as well as frequent ageing-related issues like pain or falls and providing pharmacological agents, AT and EAs.Conversely, in our review, studies rarely addressed these issues.