The condition of the flooring may contribute to the increased worm load, as mud floors were predominantly used in rural areas (84.28%), while concrete floors were constructed for animal rearing at the farm level (82.86%). Consequently, the type of flooring can influence the worm load, with kacha and paved floors having a higher risk of worm load as compared to rearing animals on concrete floors, which have a lower risk of worm load.
The observations made during the study were similar to those described by Sriasih et al. (2021), Nurcahyo et al. (2021), Conceicao et al. (2021), Kimeli et al. (2020), Adelakun et al. (2020), Paharpur (2018), Haftu & Gebrehiwot (2014), and Bilal et al. (2009), where grazing was found to influence worm infestation as compared to animals reared without provision of grazing. Worm load in terms of EPG was higher in animals on grazing than in animals without grazing. Grazing was only offered at the rural level and it influenced the occurrence rate of worm infestation as described by many researchers.
In rural and peri-urban areas, deworming was only conducted once a year, resulting in a higher worm intensity in terms of EPG compared to farm level, where deworming was carried out twice a year with a change of dewormer salt. This is beneficial in decreasing the worm load and helping to increase weight gain and overall good health of animals, as illustrated by the observations of Nurcahyo et al. (2021). Additionally, at the farm level, neonatal calves were dewormed and injected against internal and external parasites within 1 month of age to protect against the ill effects of worms and associated diseases.
The occurrence of worms was observed to be more common in calves than in older animals, and prevalence in terms of EPG was higher in calves living in rural areas than in peri-urban and farm settings. These findings are supported by the research of Chowdhury et al. (2017), Paharpur et al. (2018), Regea (2019), Vithyashankar et al. (2021), and Nurcahyo et al. (2021), which indicate that the occurrence rate of worms is lower in older animals, higher in young calves, and moderate in adults.
The results of this study are also consistent with those of Paharpur (2018), Lalrinkima et al. (2016), Shoaib et al. (2016), and Raza et al. (2013), all of whom reported that worm infection was highest in 1–2 month-old calves and lowest in calves more than 6 months old.
The findings of this study are consistent with Sriasih et al. (2021), who examined the occurrence of worms in 3–12 week-old calves and found that the occurrence rate was lower in older calves than in neonatal ones. This could be due to several factors, including the fact that calves have weaker immunity against diseases, their growing dietary needs that compete with existing nutrients for the development of disease resistance, and poor husbandry practices for calf rearing that lead to a high burden of worm load in early life. The results indicate that age is a significant factor influencing the occurrence rate of worms in different age groups, with higher rates in calves compared to young and adult stock.
Furthermore, the study found that male and female calves were equally susceptible to worm infestation, with no significant influence of gender on the occurrence rate of worms.
The same findings were reported by Lalrinkima et al. (2016) and Elele et al. (2013), who found no influence of gender on the occurrence rate of worms in male and female animals. These studies suggest that males and females are at a similar risk of getting infected by worms. However, the results of this study contrast with those of Obi et al. (2020), who reported a higher occurrence rate in males and lower in females. Vithyashankar et al. (2021) and Shoaib et al. (2016) found that female animals have a higher chance of worm infestation compared to male animals. Paharpur (2018) also reported that gender had a significant effect on the occurrence rate of worms, with males having a higher occurrence rate than their female counterparts.
These findings contradict the results reported by Raza et al. (2013) and Afridi et al. (2007), which found that gender influenced worm infestation, with a higher occurrence rate noted in male calves compared to females. These studies suggested that male calves were more vulnerable to worm infestation than female animals under similar conditions.
The study findings indicated a higher prevalence of worm infestation, as measured by eggs per gram (EPG), in calves raised in rural areas compared to those reared at peri-urban or farm level (Table 10). Furthermore, age was found to have a significant effect on worm infestation, with younger calves being at a higher risk than older ones (Table 10, P ≤ 0.05).
The effect of gender on the occurrence rate of worms was observed to be non-significant, as both male and female calves were equally prone to worm infestation. Associated risk factors of worm infestation included mud floors, cracks and crevices in walls, dung heaps, grazing, unclean mangers, and water troughs.