In today’s world, which is characterised by globalisation, individuals are expected to be interculturally capable and sensitive in order to communicate effectively with people from different backgrounds and societies. One way in which individuals from different societies are able to interact and have meaningful cultural exchanges and a sense of belonging in the foreign country where there live or study is by learning and using that country’s language.
On the bilingual island of Malta, where Maltese and English have been its official languages since 1934 (Europeans and their Languages Report, 2012), foreign residents can communicate in English, but it is always an asset to know Maltese, especially if one lives in certain villages where Maltese is mostly spoken: this is the case in many villages around the island, such as Zabbar, Zejtun, Zebbug and Gozo. Educators who teach Maltese language to non-native learners play an important role in teaching Maltese as a foreign language (MFL). One important aspect of teaching individuals a new language is relating the language to the culture of that language and the culture of the learners. According to Risager (2006), it is widely recognised that language and culture are closely intertwined. The relationship between language and culture is such that when one teaches a language, one also teaches the culture that is related to that language (Nhem, 2020).
It has also been argued that intercultural communication competence (ICC) is necessary for talent development and inclusive schooling in the twenty-first century (Cherkowski & Ragoonaden, 2016; Zhang, 2017). Zhang, (2017) also notes that the development of ICC is a phenomenon that will permeate all facets of activities involved in language teaching. In this vein, language teachers are expected to help learners develop ICC. To do this, the teachers themselves, especially teachers of MFL, should, as argued by Zhang (2017), first be capable intercultural communicators who have great self-confidence and adequate experience. As noted by Mostafaei and Nosrati (2018), foreign language (L2) teachers, as the critical players in the education of language, need to be interculturally competent and sensitive so as to be in a position to develop their learners’ ICC and intercultural sensitivity.
It has also been acknowledged that integrating cultures in the teaching of the L2 is necessary to enable L2 learners to grasp and improve their ICC in the globalised community (Thao & Tai, 2017). However, Thao and Tai (2017) also point out that L2 educators in various contexts seem to ignore this important concept in their L2 teaching.
The Research Problem and Objective of the Study
The question that this research seeks to answer is, how do MFL teachers develop intercultural capabilities? The study will specifically focus on providing an understanding of how a sample of 17 teachers developed intercultural capabilities in their teaching of Maltese as a foreign language to adults. The aim of the study is to review the literature on the educational content and pedagogical practices that can support such development of intercultural capabilities and to compare the findings of the literature review with the views of the teachers who took part in this study.
Research Questions
The study seeks to answer the following questions:
- How important is intercultural competence according to MFL teachers?
- How do teachers perceive the characteristics of an interculturally competent MFL educator?
- How do educators develop intercultural competence?
Literature Review
The Intercultural Competence of Foreign Language Teachers
When it comes to teaching foreign languages, the theory of intercultural competence has been used for more than 20 years (Karabinar & Guler, 2012). What comes out clearly in the discussion about culture and language is that because of the close connection between language and culture, foreign language teachers need to be familiar with the cultural aspects of their own languages and those of the languages of their learners (Karabinar & Guler, 2012). The debate has also brought about an argument about intercultural speakers. According to Risager (2007), an intercultural speaker is a language speaker who develops their own ability to mediate between different cultural perspectives and between the first language and the target language. The discussion about the theory of intercultural competence has also centred on the need for foreign language teachers to have intercultural competence (Karabinar & Guler, 2012).
Intercultural competence has been defined as “knowledge, skills and attitudes, complemented by the values one holds because of one’s belonging to a number of social groups, values which are part of one’s belonging to a given society” (Byram et al., 2001, p. 5). Intercultural competence can also be defined as being concerned with an individual’s ability to shift their perspective to a culture other than their own (Arcagok & Yılmaz, 2020).
Based on Byram et al.’s (2001) definition of intercultural competence, a key component of the concept is the attitude of the speaker—in this case, the teacher—in that the teacher should be curious, open and ready to suspend their disbeliefs about other cultures and their beliefs about their own culture. This implies a readiness to relativise one’s own beliefs, values and behaviours, not to have the view that one’s belief, value or behaviour is the only
probably and scientifically correct one. It is important to be in a position to visualise how teachers may look from the perspective of another person who has a dissimilar set of beliefs, values and behaviours (Byram et al., 2001).
Another factor that is critical to intercultural competence is knowledge. Knowledge here refers not simply to awareness of a particular culture, but to knowledge about the functioning of social identities and social groups in one’s own and others’ cultures (Byram et al., 2001). L2 educators need to have knowledge of social groups and their practices and products in their own country and in their learners’ countries. The educators also need to have knowledge about how other individuals see themselves, as well as awareness of other individuals (Byram et al., 2001).
The final component of intercultural competence is skills. L2 educators need the skills to make comparisons, to interpret and to relate (Byram et al., 2001). That is, they need to be able to interpret an occurrence or document from another culture, to explain it, and to relate it to another occurrence or document from their own culture (Bouchard, 2017). L2 educators also need to have the skill of interacting.
According to Byram (1997), an individual who has developed ICC can establish relationships when interacting in a foreign language; interacts efficiently, considering his or her opinions and needs; mediates interactions between persons of various backgrounds; and seeks to keep learning communicative competence. While discussing Byram’s (1997) definition of intercultural competence, Sercu (2006) notes that the definition brings to the fore the skills, knowledge and attitudes that foreign language teachers need in order to be considered as interculturally competent individuals. Regarding knowledge, Sercu (2006) notes that foreign language teachers need to be adequately acquainted with the foreign culture that is associated with the foreign language that they teach. Additionally, teachers need to be familiar with their own culture and have culture-general knowledge to assist them in explaining differences and similarities between cultures to their students. Foreign language teachers also need to understand both the stereotypes that learners have and how to handle the stereotypes in a foreign language classroom. Teachers also need to know how to select relevant content, materials and learning tasks that enable learners to develop intercultural competence. Concerning skills, Sercu (2006) suggests that teachers need to be able to employ teaching techniques that enhance their knowledge of social groups, ability to interpret documents or events from other cultures, ability to acquire new knowledge about a given culture, and critical cultural awareness.
Lastly, as regards attitudes, foreign language teachers need to be favourably disposed towards the incorporation of intercultural competence teaching in their work and be ready to actually work towards attaining this objective (Sercu, 2006). Dervin (2010) also discusses the same point by noting that teachers need to exhibit interculturality in the teaching of a foreign language. Further, Dervin (2010) notes that if one introduces intercultural competence in their teaching, they also need to develop ways of ensuring that the competence is developed.
The Significance of Intercultural Competence
Studies on the content of foreign language programmes have established that one of the most mentioned outcomes of foreign language teaching relates to cultural learning, which can occur in different forms (Moeller & Catalano, 2015), including culture-specific knowledge, culture learning skills, cultural self-awareness, and intercultural development.
The intercultural competence for intercultural development involves having the ability to shift the perspective from a person’s own culture to another culture; it also entails gaining new communication skills, new cultural knowledge, culture learning skills, and competence in cross-cultural communication. As such, intercultural education is believed to develop an individual’s affective, cognitive and behavioural skills (Holm et al., 2009).
Intercultural competence entails elements such as having respect for and valuing other cultures, having curiosity and openness about others, having a sense of self-awareness, and being able to adapt to new cultural conditions (Deardorff, 2007). Along the same lines, Bustamante et al. (2016) argued that the development of teachers’ intercultural competence should be integrated into the preparation programmes for teachers, thereby providing room for pre-service teachers to be aware of diversity.
Understanding diversity is an issue that has been advocated by a number of organisations, including the European Commission (EC) (Xuereb, 2009). Diversity in Europe is reflected through multiculturalism, which the EC defines as the acceptance of migrants and minority groups as distinct groups of people whose social behaviours, languages and social infrastructures distinguish them from the majority groups (Xuereb, 2009). Xuereb (2009) further emphasises that multiculturalism advocates that members of minority groups and immigrants should be accorded rights equal to each other and to members of the majority groups. Therefore, if teachers are aware of diversity, they are likely to embrace matters of multiculturalism in their profession. Indeed, there are initiatives aimed at promoting the integration of intercultural aspects into the education of teachers. For example, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment of Europe emphasises the need to promote cultural awareness and to enhance intercultural competence in the teaching of foreign languages (Arcagok & Yılmaz, 2020). In particular, teachers are expected to use language in socially and culturally appropriate features when communicating, and to explore aspects of other languages (Byram, Gribkova, & Starkey, 2002; Makhmudov, 2020). For example, the teachers’ manner of expression, greetings, ways of addressing, politeness and idioms have to be socially and culturally appropriate (Makhmudov, 2020).
Closely related to the argument made by Makhmudov (2020) and Byram et. al. (2002) about the need for teachers to use culturally appropriate features in their communication is an observation made by Ortaçtepe & Akyel (2015). In a study to investigate the linkage between the efficacy of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers and the teachers’ self-reported information about the practice of communicative language teaching, Ortaçtepe and Akyel (2015, p. 684) note that “In recent years, there has been a shift in foreign language teaching from traditional grammar-based approaches to more communicative ones such as communicative language teaching”. The shift is such that it introduces a new role for foreign language educators. Rather than being the sole source of knowledge, foreign teachers are now facilitators who not only create a classroom environment that is conducive to the learning of language but also provide opportunities for learners to be involved in meaningful communication (Hall, 2011; Ortaçtepe and Akyel, 2015).
Why MFL Educators Need Intercultural Capabilities
Having intercultural capabilities is important for MFL teachers in many ways. To start with, there is a lot of evidence to suggest that language and culture are closely intertwined. The close connection between language and culture is such that language is used to express meaning, but the meaning is brought about by culture (Arcagok & Yılmaz, 2020). According to Damen (1987), in order to be meaningful, language must be connected to culture and be culture-specific. As a result, it is critical for teachers of MFL to value the significance of possessing cultural competence so that their students can learn to communicate successfully using the target language (Arcagok & Yılmaz, 2020).
The growing need for people to be interculturally competent as a result of globalisation and other advancements has made it necessary for teachers, especially L2 teachers, to gain intercultural capabilities (Bal & Savas, 2020). Bal and Savas (2020) further point out that teachers are expected to have respect for both individual and cultural differences. Marczak (2013) identifies tolerance, being accommodating and openness as some of the attributes of an intercultural educator. Teachers’ sensitivity to the attitudes of learners is also regarded as a facet of the intercultural learning process (Bal & Savas, 2020).
How Educators Develop Intercultural Capabilities
Various authors have discussed how educators develop intercultural competence. For example, according to Zhang (2017), some educators are of the view that the development of intercultural communication capabilities in the teaching of an L2 is a continuous process that encompasses focusing on three levels of intercultural teaching aims and criteria.
The first level is concerned with knowledge, and includes factors such as linguistic awareness, language capability of the target culture, general cultural awareness, and cultural knowledge of the country from which the L2 learners originate (Zhang, 2017). For instance, having cultural awareness means being able to understand and empathise with different individuals and cultures, respecting and embracing differences and diversity in a way that is not judgemental, being able to undertake effective intercultural communication, and supporting others and giving them equal opportunity (Baker, 2011). It has also been argued that in order to develop linguistic ability, L2 teachers need, among other things, to make their students cognisant of the phenomenon of language and how it works. The teacher will also help learners to have conscious knowledge of the language and its nature (Byram, 2012).
The second level is related to areas such as competence in intercultural communication, the ability to use verbal and non-verbal forms of communication, socio-cultural competence, and communication approaches (Zhang, 2017). Individuals develop their intercultural communication ability through attributes such as interaction confidence, interaction enjoyment, interaction attentiveness, and respect for cultural differences (Sarwari & Wahab, 2017). These traits are developed when individuals are willing to interact with other people from different cultures, have respect for other cultures, and treat others from different backgrounds fairly (Sarwari & Wahab, 2017).
The third level of how educators develop intercultural capabilities is related to attitude, which has to do with critical cultural awareness and empathy in intercultural communication (Zhang, 2017). As noted above, awareness of the differences and similarities between one’s own culture and the target culture is critical for the development of intercultural competence. Thus, an L2 teacher needs to be aware of the culture that learners bring to the communication process in an L2 classroom (Fenner, 2017). In order to communicate effectively with learners, the teacher needs to be willing to adjust his or her own attitudes and perspectives so as to understand the learners, even in a scenario where a full understanding cannot be achieved (Fenner, 2017).
Measures to Promote the Development of Intercultural Capabilities among L2 Teachers
As implied above, one of the attributes of teachers who have intercultural capabilities is that they can use language in a socially and culturally appropriate manner when communicating, and be able to explore aspects of other languages (Byram et al., 2002; Makhmudov, 2020). It has also been noted that teachers need to develop ways of to ensure that their intercultural competence is developed (Dervin, 2010). This means that teachers have to continually improve their intercultural competence by exploring more ways to behave in a socially and culturally appropriate manner when interacting with others. This section thus discusses various measures that have been proposed to help develop educators’ intercultural capabilities.
Intercultural training. Intercultural training is predominantly related to the training of adults who perform jobs that require them to interact with individuals from different cultures (Perry & Southwell, 2011). The training involves imparting knowledge to teachers about various aspects of intercultural competence and how to develop these aspects. For instance, teachers are trained on how to interact with ethnically diverse students and other attributes that make teachers interculturally competent (Gay & Howard, 2000).
Learning intercultural capabilities at school. It has also been noted that the development of intercultural capabilities can take place through learning at school (Perry & Southwell, 2011). Specifically, it has been argued that interaction between native speakers of a language and L2 learners is at the core of enhancing both the learning of language and cultural understanding (Byram & Feng, 2004). Additionally, as noted by Cloonan et al. (2016, p. 11), “sharing is a critical part of intercultural exchange”. In particular, when teachers share narratives about their experience of intercultural exchanges, they are able to develop their knowledge and consciousness of ethnic and cultural differences and able to embrace these differences (Cloonan et al., 2016). This can also help teachers to revise their pedagogical approaches in ways that are sensitive to diverse groups of people (Cloonan et al., 2016).
Visits to other countries. The impact on intercultural competence of visits to other countries has been researched widely (Perry & Southwell, 2011). For instance, one study showed that overseas study enhances university students’ intercultural understanding, while another suggested that repeated visits to the same place or a sojourn of at least three months is associated with higher intercultural sensitivity or intercultural competence (Perry & Southwell, 2011).
Similarly, in a study involving US students studying abroad, Medina-Lopez-Portillo (2004) found that the longer students interact with people of a particular culture, the more they learn and develop intercultural sensitivity. It has also been suggested that “a comprehensive study abroad program is one of the most effective ways to prepare multicultural and global teachers” (He, Lundgren, & Pynes, 2017, p. 147). Sercu’s (2006) study also found out that foreign language teachers who frequently travelled to foreign countries associated with the foreign language that they taught felt that they could deal extensively with the traditions, daily life routines, education, youth culture, and history, political systems and geography of those countries in a foreign language classroom. The same teachers could also at least have something to say about the values and beliefs, cultural expressions, and international relations of those cultures (Sercu, 2006). As a result, according to Sercu (2006), foreign language teachers’ contact with the cultures associated with the language that they teach “should be both varied and frequent” (p. 57). This implies that where possible, foreign language teachers should constantly visit countries associated with the foreign language that they teach in order to learn about the cultures of those countries. This does not apply to the present study as the participants teaching Maltese as a foreign language were actually Maltese living in Malta.
It has also been found that students who study abroad can develop intercultural competence only when they interact with the local people of that country (Williams, 2005). He et al. (2017) also argued that “International cultural immersion experiences are considered one of the most effective means to prepare multicultural and global teachers” (p. 147). This means that it is not enough to merely work or study overseas; the visiting people have to be immersed in the local culture. This implies that it is not enough for the adult learners who are learning Maltese to live in Malta: they need to be immersed in the Maltese culture, which is often found in rural areas and not in the touristic towns such as Sliema, St Julian’s and Bugibba.