Radiation Dose from Cassava Samples from a Coal Mining Area of Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2739096/v1

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Radiation Dose from Cassava Samples from a Coal Mining Area of Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2739096/v1

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Cassava is one of the most staple food for the Nigerian population and is consumed in large quantity daily. Food intake is one of the routes of radiological contamination to man. Cassava samples from an old coal mining area of Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria were analyzed using gamma ray spectroscopic method. The mean activity concentrations for the radionuclides 40K, 226Ra and 232Th respectively ranged from 193.68-300.92 Bq/kg, 23.03-37.24 Bq/kg and 135.33-158.43 for camp 1, camp 2 and Pottery areas respectively. The total mean annual effective dose due to the three observed radionuclides was 2.03 mSv/yr, which was higher than the recommended value of 1 mSv/yr. The cassava samples from the area under study showed high radiotoxicity levels.

Radionuclides

activity concentration

Annual effective dose

coal mining area

Enugu.

Natural radionuclides can contaminate the environment from human activities related to mineral exploitation (Chalupnik, 2010). Activities like coal mining generally has a very high impact on man and the environment, which results on one side in an increase of employment and economic profit for the community and the operators; and on the other side represents a threat to natural reserves due to landscape changes and pollution. This often results in destroyed ecosystems, polluted environments, change in landscape of an area and change in agricultural crop yield due to the release of entirely new materials into the environment. Tailings seepage waters in conjunction with dry or wet deposition of resuspended radioactive materials from tailing piles can also lead to elevated radionuclides levels in nearby soils, where they can be absorbed, retained and taken up by plants (Galhardi et al.2017). This is because, irrespective of biological necessity, plants have been observed to take up many cations present in their root region (Demidchik, & Maathuis, 2007).

In the soil, radioactive elements follow complex dynamics in which part of it is transported into the soil solution, while another part gradually becomes strongly bound to soil particles, where the plant root system becomes the major pathway for natural radionuclide migration from soil to man through the food chain (Amakom et al., 2017). In some cases, the natural radionuclides (such as ²³⁸U, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K), are facilitated by their chemical similarity with other elements that the plant normally uses for its growth (Manigandan, 2009). The uptake by these plants would then constitute a direct route of internal radiation dose to both humans and non-human biota when consumed (Sabyasachi et al., 2021). Hence, in dose assessment models, ingestion of contaminated food becomes one of the important exposure pathways to radionuclides.

In the radioactive decay chain, ²²⁶Ra(²³⁸U) and ²²⁸Ra(²³²Th) are amongst the radionuclides observed to be highly radiotoxic; with radium being a carcinogen (Nahar et al., 2018). It has also been observed that successive accumulation of small amounts of environmental radium in the bone tissues can lead to damages in the bone marrow and subsequent carcinogenesis in the bone cells (Janković et al., 2012). Radionuclides ingested through food intake accounts for a substantial fraction of the average radiation doses to various organs of the body, as one-eight of the mean annual effective dose due to natural radionuclides can be traced back to food intake (Salih, 2021), therefore, radiation doses from food intake represents a pathway for long term health considerations (Aswood,et al.,2017). As reported by (Prihati and Samat, 2016), the members of the public receive about 3.01 mSv of radiation dose annually, of which 79.73% (2.4 mSv.y^-1) are from natural radiation sources whereas the rest are from anthropogenic sources. Therefore, showing the significant contribution of natural radiation sources to the total dose a member of a population receives annually.

Cassava (Manihot esculenta), is a root crop which is largely consumed daily in Nigeria and a major source of carbohydrate (Chijioke et al., 2018), where it’s used to make popular foods like Garri and tapioca. The importance of cassava can not be overemphasied as it represents about 50% of all calories consumed in sub-Sahara Africa and is the third most important source of calories in the tropics (AO, 2008). Cassava is also very essential in the production of industrial starch, ethanol and animal feed (Adjei-Nsiah and Sakyi-Dawson, 2012). Cassava has been observed to exhibit greater root absorption of radionuclide than through the trapping onto external plant surfaces (Ononugbo et al., 2019) and owing to the wide use and consumption of cassava product within the study area; and due to the coal mining activities that happened in the study area, the aim of this study is to estimate the radiotoxicity from the cassava products cultivated in the area under study.

Study Area

Iva valley is a locality located in the city of Enugu, in Enugu state, Nigeria. The locality is the site of the Okpara Coal Mine (Figure 1) - one of the five defunct and distinct mines (Onyeama, Obwetti, Okpara, Iva Valley and Ribadu) in the Enugu area was opened in 1952 by the Nigerian Coal Cooperation (NCC) (Awoniyi, 1977; Akande et al., 1992). Production in the mine declined from a peak of 3,040 tons in 1984 to 1016 tons in 1990 and was closed down. The mine was later reopened in 1999 and operated till 2004/2005 when it was abandoned due to economic reasons (Nganje et al., 2010). The coal mine spoils which are not treated and are scattered in the area consist of a mixture of variable fragments of carbonaceous shale, sandstones, clay and coal. Pyrite and marcasite are found to be associated with these minerals.

The study area is located between latitudes 06^o 22 ׳N and 06^o 27 ׳N and longitudes 007^o ׳ 25E and 007^o30 ׳E at about 5 km west of Enugu town and about 15 km to the Akanu Ibiam International Airport in Enugu North L.G.A of southeastern Nigeria. It is closer to the neighbouring town of Enugu Ngwo (about 4.7 km) and Hill tops of Enugu in the Ogbette and Enugu Coal Camp layout just in the periphery of the city near the Iva valley. The study area also borders some parts of the Obwetti fire clay mine and coal processing plant.

Sample Collection and Preparation.

A total of 32 cassava samples were collected within the Iva-Valley area using a hand trowel and black polyethylene bags. The area was divided into three—viz pottery, camp 1 and camp 2 as they are called. About 0.5 kg of each sample was collected for gamma spectroscopy. The cassava samples were washed with fresh water for removing the dust and mud. All the samples were then dried under direct sun and humidity condition for 5 days before being individually dried in an electric oven of 110°C to obtain a constant dry weight and were also sieved to grain size of less than 0.63 mm and sealed in a plastic container. The samples were kept for at least 30 days before the measurement to reach secular equilibrium between thorium and radium and their decay products.

Gamma Ray Spectroscopy

The gamma-ray spectrometry set-up is made up of a 7.62 cm by 7.62 cm NaI (Tl) detector housed in a 6 cm thick lead shield (to assist in the reduction of the background radiation) and lined with cadmium and copper sheets (CE manual, 1999). The samples were placed on the detector surface and each counted for about 29,000 seconds in reproducible sample detector geometry. The configuration and geometry was maintained throughout the analysis, as previously characterized based on well established protocol of the laboratory (at the Centre for Energy Research and Training, Zaria). A computer based Multichannel Analyser (MCA) MAESTRO Programme from ORTEC was used for data acquisition and analysis of gamma spectra. The 1764 keV Gamma-line of ²¹⁴Bi for ²³⁸ U was used in the assessment of the activity concentration of ²²⁶Ra, while 2614.5 keV Gamma-line of ²⁰⁸Tl was used for ²³²Th. The single 1460 keV Gamma-line of ⁴⁰K was used in its content evaluation. The activity concentration (C) in Bq/kg of the radionuclides in the samples was calculated after decay correction using equation (1) (Amakom et al., 2018)

Daily Intake of Radionuclide

The daily intake of radionuclides depends on the quantity of radionuclides present in the cassava samples and their accumulation in the human body via the consumption by an average adult, and were estimated using equation (2) (Ashikun, 2018). Cassava products are mostly consumed in the form of Fufu, cassava flour and Garri; the value for the mean annual consumption of cassava was obtained from the work of (Jibiri and Abiodun, 2012), and this was given as 116.6 kg/y.

where, D_int is the daily intake of radionuclides (Bq) by adult individuals, A_c is the activity concentration of radionuclides (Bq kg⁻¹), A_ig is the per capita per year consumption of cassava, and Y_d is the days in a year.

Annual effective dose

For radiological risk assessment, the annual effective dose due to an intake of radionuclides was estimated for cassava products. The purpose of calculating the effective dose is to provide an information regarding annual effective dose for the population of the particular area due to consumption of cassava products. Equation (3) is used to calculate an individual's annual effective dose due to consuming ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K radionuclides by taking into account the consumption rates of cassava products, the radionuclide concentrations, and the relevant dose conversion factor (Nahar et al., 2018).

where, E_eff is the annual effective dose (Svy⁻¹), A_c is the average activity concentration of radionuclides (Bq kg⁻¹), A_ig is the annual intake of cassava (kgy⁻¹), and D_cf is the ingestion dose conversion factor for the radionuclides of interest (2.8×10⁻⁷ SvBq⁻¹for ²²⁶Ra, 7.2×10⁻⁸ SvBq⁻¹ for ²³²Th and 6.2×10⁻⁹ SvBq⁻¹ for ⁴⁰K).

Gamma spectroscopic analysis was carried on cassava crop samples collected within the Enugu old coal mining area—popularly known as Iva-valley. The results obtained from the three areas-Camp 1, Camp 2 and Pottery are presented below.

Activity concentrations in Camp 1

The result for the activity concentration of radionuclides in the cassava samples obtained from the Iva-valley area, classified as camp 1 is presented in table 1. The activity concentrations range from 39.34 - 442.45 Bq/kg, 11.7 to 89.22 Bq/kg and 70.46 to 182.23 Bq/kg for ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th respectively.

Table 1: Activity concentration of radionuclides in cassava samples of camp 1 (Bq/kg)

Sample code	⁴⁰K	²²⁶Ra	²³²Th
A1	109.64±9.33	39.39±3.82	118.47±4.10
A2	185.56±6.75	42.70±3.56	114.45±3.80
A3	39.34±5.59	89.22±5.09	70.46±1.59
A4	179.47±2.02	18.42±5.44	169.89±2.50
A5	193.07±3.20	34.12±5.87	119.10±2.46
A6	262.02±4.20	57.91±6.03	182.23±3.82
A7	442.45±6.99	20.97±1.85	118.92±6.84
A8	319.87±5.98	36.62±8.27	140.29±3.10
A9	234.28±5.32	24.28±5.73	116.38±5.38
A10	162.83±1.86	49.13±2.54	173.77±2.50
A11	186.38±4.29	22.43±3.29	131.48±3.43
A12	274.65±9.02	11.70±1.50	168.52±1.40
Mean	215.79±5.37	37.24±4.41	135.33±3.41

Activity concentrations in Camp 2

The activity concentration of radionuclides in the cassava samples collected from around the camp 2 site is shown in table 2. The values range from 113.99—253.96 Bq /kg, 16.10—54.32 Bq/kg and 85.29—212.77 Bq/kg for ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th respectively.

Table 2: Activity concentration of radionuclides in cassava samples of camp 2 (Bq/kg)

Sample code	⁴⁰K	²²⁶Ra	²³²Th
A13	246.03±5.13	19.11±7.18	173.77±2.39
A14	242.44±7.34	31.28±7.23	187.28±4.23
A15	253.96±1.39	38.81±3.70	164.08±1.36
A16	184.99±6.12	43.83±5.21	212.77±3.29
A17	178.32±3.94	25.32±4.39	132.47±2.39
A18	113.99±7.30	16.10±1.15	157.58±3.19
A19	137.23±4.30	54.32±3.23	85.29±1.20
A20	192.53±5.92	46.29±7.32	154.23±2.43
Mean	193.68±5.18	34.38±4.92	158.43±2.56

Activity concentration in pottery

The results for the gamma spectroscopic analysis carried out on cassava samples collected from around the pottery area is shown in table 3. The activity concentrations in cassava samples range from 180.87—423.42, 12.38—46.92 and 59.40—203.48 Bq/kg for ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th respectively.

Table 3: Activity concentration of radionuclides in cassava samples of Pottery (Bq/kg)

Sample code	⁴⁰K	²²⁶Ra	²³²Th
PT1	246.03±1.08	19.11±7.18	173.54±3.42
PT2	411.50±4.66	33.25±4.63	59.40±4.90
PT3	327.32±3.29	19.39±3.20	93.20±1.29
PT4	298.09±5.20	16.39±3.20	189.32±0.93
PT5	180.87±1.55	14.02±5.21	144.81±1.48
PT6	221.38±6.26	19.28±5.29	154.38±3.11
PT7	231.10±3.11	46.92±5.79	68.87±2.62
PT8	302.95±8.08	30.47±4.86	154.88±2.16
PT9	423.42±4.29	22.38±4.20	203.48±1.56
PT10	276.83±7.29	24.43±6.29	166.29±1.89
PT11	276.31±5.32	12.38±4.01	154.28±1.39
PT12	415.32±6.20	18.43±5.39	192.42±3.10
Mean	300.92±4.69	23.03±4.93	146.23±2.32

The concentration values of the radionuclides were higher than what Jwanbot et al (2012) and Jibiri and Abiodun (2012) observed for cassava and other root tuber crops like yam and cocoyam at Jos-Plateau and Abeokuta, all noted as high radiation areas in Nigeria respectively. Also, when compared the result with that obtained by Tchokosa et al. (2013), the activity concentrations in the Iva-valley area were higher. A similar study carried out by Addo et al. (2013) on activity concentration around a cement factory in Ghana show a lower result than those of this study. Table 4 shows some comparisons of the results obtain from this study and others.

Table 4: Comparison between radionuclides concentrations (Bq kg⁻¹) of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K in Cassava

Sample category	40K (Bq/kg)	226Ra (Bq/kg)	232Th (Bq/kg)	source	location
cassava	223.79±33.85	13.07±2.88	19.11±2.09	Rilwan et al 2022	Jos, Nigeria
cassava	479.87± 42.42	2.97 ±1.02	0.67 ±0.08	Jibiri & Abiodun, 2012	Ogun State, Nigeria
cassava	17.97 ± 1.24	2.25 ± 0.40	2.62 ± 0.16	Jwanbot et al 2012	Jos, Nigeria
cassava	67.27 ± 4.55	77.51±4.99	28.86±5.79	Avwiri et al 2021	Niger-Delta, Nigeria
cassava	746.08 ± 0.48	24.83 ± 10.87	859.41 ± 2.47	Ononugbo et al 2019	Delta state, Nigeria
cassava	27.2 ± 3.61	0.64 ± 0.21	0.57 ± 0.18	Doyi et al 2018	Ghana
cassava flour	91.78 ± 5.02		1.09 ± 0.17	Lopes et al 2018	Brazil
cassava	242.19±5.07	31.20±4.73	145.19±2.78	This study	Enugu, Nigeria

Statistical Analysis

Due to the wide variations of the radionuclide concentrations within the areas under study, a statistical analysis was performed on the activity concentration values. The statistical tool used to ascertain if there is a significant difference between the activity concentrations in the cassava samples obtained in the various areas was the ‘Analysis of Variance’ (ANOVA). In using this statistical tool, two hypotheses were propounded: the null and alternative hypothesis.

The null hypothesis (H₀)—implies that there is no significant difference in the mean values of the activity concentrations within the area.
The alternative hypothesis (H₁)—implies that there is a significant difference in the mean values of the activity concentrations within the area.

The statistics was performed using Microsoft EXCEL statistical package at 95% confidence level.

Table 5 shows the ANOVA result, for ⁴⁰K in the cassava samples, the calculated F-value was higher than the F-critical, thereby making us reject H₀ and accept H₁. This implies that there is a statistically significant difference in the mean activity concentrations of ⁴⁰K in the cassava samples within the three areas under investigation. Whereas ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th shows no significant difference in the activity concentrations and H_O was accepted. The difference in the mean activity concentration of ⁴⁰K could be as a result of the different amount fertilizer applications by various farmers.

Table 5: ANOVA Results for the area under study

Groups	F-value	F-critical	Decision
⁴⁰K	4.81	3.32	REJECT H₀
²²⁶Ra	2.61	3.32	ACCEPT H₀
²³²Th	0.79	3.32	ACCEPT H₀

Daily Intake of Radionuclide

The estimated daily intakes of radionuclides through the consumption of studied cassava are shown in table 6. The mean daily intakes of the radionuclides ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th for the three areas under study varied from 61.87-96.12 Bq; 7.35-11.89 Bq and 43.23-50.61 Bq respectively. ⁴⁰K constituted the highest daily intake of the natural radionuclides followed by ²³²Th. Potassium-40 is usually of limited interest because, as an isotope of an essential element, it is homeostatically controlled in the human cells (Jibiri and Abiodun, 2012). The daily intake of ²³²Th in the cassava samples were higher than those of ²²⁶Ra.

Table 6: Daily intake of radionuclides and Annual effective Dose from the three areas under study

Sample code	D_int ⁴⁰K (Bq)	D_int ²²⁶Ra (Bq)	D_int ²³²Th (Bq)	Total AED (mSv/yr)
A1	35.02	12.58	37.85	0.92
A2	59.28	13.64	36.56	1.56
A3	12.57	28.50	22.51	0.33
A4	57.33	5.88	54.27	1.51
A5	61.68	10.90	38.05	1.62
A6	83.70	18.50	58.21	2.20
A7	141.34	6.70	37.99	3.72
A8	102.18	11.70	44.82	2.69
A9	74.84	7.76	37.18	1.97
A10	52.02	15.69	55.51	1.37
A11	59.54	7.17	42.00	1.57
A12	87.74	3.74	53.83	2.31
A13	78.59	6.10	55.51	2.07
A14	77.45	9.99	59.83	2.04
A15	81.13	12.40	52.42	2.13
A16	59.10	14.00	67.97	1.55
A17	56.96	8.09	42.32	1.50
A18	36.41	5.14	50.34	0.96
A19	43.84	17.35	27.25	1.15
A20	61.50	14.79	49.27	1.62
PT1	78.59	6.10	55.44	2.07
PT2	131.45	10.62	18.98	3.46
PT3	104.56	6.19	29.77	2.75
PT4	95.23	5.24	60.48	2.50
PT5	57.78	4.48	46.26	1.52
PT6	70.72	6.16	49.32	1.86
PT7	73.83	14.99	22.00	1.94
PT8	96.78	9.73	49.48	2.54
PT9	135.26	7.15	65.00	3.56
PT10	88.43	7.80	53.12	2.33
PT11	88.27	3.95	49.29	2.32
PT12	132.67	5.89	61.47	3.49
mean	77.37	9.97	46.38	2.03

Annual effective dose

The total annual effective dose for the three radionuclides (⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th) in the area under study is presented in table 6, the values ranged from 0.33-3.72 mSv/yr, with a mean value of 2.03 mSv/yr. The annual effective dose for this study were higher than what Jibiri and Abiodun (2012), Hassan etal., (2021) obtained in their study, and also lower to what Jayasinghe et al., (2020) obtained for food crops from a high background area of Sri Lanka. The values obtained for this study were mostly higher than the world average values (120 μSv y−1 for uranium and thorium series radionuclides and 170 μSv y−1 for non-series ⁴⁰K) reported by UNSCEAR (2000). From this study, it can be observed that the average radiation dose from the cassava samples in the study area exceeds the 1 mSv/yr as recommended by UNSCEAR (2000). Individuals consuming cassava from the study area stands the risks of receiving twice the recommended value of internal radiation ingestion of the food samples.

samples were measured using gamma ray spectrometry. A total of 32 cassava samples were obtained from the three areas where the coal mine is located. Only the radionuclides ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K were detected, there were no trace of artificial radionuclides within the cassava samples. The Pottery area shows highest mean activity concentration of ⁴⁰K and also the lowest mean activity concentration for ²²⁶Ra. The activity concentration of ²²⁶Ra and ²³²Th obtained in this study were higher than what was obtained in the other parts of the country (see table 4). The total annual effective dose from the three radionuclides observed in this study was higher than the recommended value 1 mSv/yr (UNSCEAR, 2000). From radiological point of view, cassava crops cultivated in the area under study pose high radiation risk to the consumers.

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No competing interests reported.

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Radiation Dose from Cassava Samples from a Coal Mining Area of Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria

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1. Introduction

2. Materials And Methods

3. Results And Discussion

4. Conclusions

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