When particles traverse a medium, they invariably undergo scattering by electrons, resulting in a decrease in transmittance as the thickness of the medium increases. However, in the experiments conducted, the transmittance of light increased even when the angle of incidence increased, and the thickness of the medium tripled. This outcome is unattainable for particles . Furthermore, a series of experiments verified that light manifest as transverse waves on a one-dimensional string . These experimental results can be attributed to the interaction between the amplitude of light and the medium of electrons. Employing the novel refractive-index formula, the refractive indices of gases such as helium, oxygen, and chlorine were calculated with remarkable precision.
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Light is one- dimensional transverse wave
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2815536/v1
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Previously,light was believed to be aholisticwave capable of both reflection and transmission[1], Einstein discovering the concept of light quanta and leading people to consider light as a particle. Another experiment on photoelectric effect demonstrated that polarization plays a key role in light; however, this did not garner significant attention[2]. In recent years, experiments have proven that single photons exhibit linear polarization [3,4], prompting the realization that the basic unit of light is linearly polarized light. People have longknown about optical glass ne>no[5];however,no reasonable explanation has been provided forit. Recently, it was reported that light comprises transverse waves on a one-dimensional string with negligible amplitudes [6]. This localized nature of light waves can explain the particle-like behavior of light, such as the photoelectric and Compton effects. The goal of this study was to utilize three experiments to demonstrate that light is a transverse wave on a one-dimensional string . We calculated the refractive indices of gases such as helium, oxygen, and chlorine using a novel refractive index formula that requires only the ionization energies of the elements, and the results were extremely accurate.
In Fig.1(a),L represent sasemiconductor laser,wavelength λ=520 nm, 15mW. P1 and P2 are polarizers and have the same polarization azimuth (α) ，and the azimuth measurement error is less than one degree. D represents the probe Of the photometer(ST-86L),S is 1.102-mm-thick glass sheet or 0.5-mm-thick quartz single-crystal wafer, θ denotes the angle of light to the S surface normal (incidence angle). LP1=6300 mm,P1C=270 mm,CP2=150 mm, and P2D=230 mm.
In Fig.1(b), OE1 and OE2 are amplitudes of the light, and OE1 = OE2. Lo is the polarization azimuth of light at 90°, Le is the polarization azimuth of light α= 0°,and A is the center of the atoms.
Experiment 1 measures the transmittance of θ=0° and θ=45° at different α,where S denotes the glass slide.The experimental results are presented in Table1.
Experiment 2 investigated the transmittance of light under different thicknesses of glass S at =0°,The experimental results are presented in Table2.
Experiment 3 examined the transmittance of light when the crystallographic orientation of a single quartz crystal was parallel to the amplitude of light at α=0°. S represents a 10 mm × 10 mm × 0.5mm quartz single-crystal slice, which is X cut; one side is labelled b,while the other is perpendicular and labelled c.The interplanar spacings of the b and c sides were measured using a Smart Lab X-ray diffractometer and determined to be 0.18 nm and 0.43 nm, respectively. This experiment did not require a P2 polarizer because of the optical rotation of the crystal. The experimental results are presented in Table 3.
The mean value and standard deviation were adopted for statistical analysis.
Table 1. Light transmittance at different azimuth angles
|
|
α = 90° No S |
α = 90° θ = 0° |
α = 90° θ =45° |
α = 0° No S |
α =0° θ =0° |
α = 0° θ = 45° |
|
I1 |
6.56 |
5.81 |
5.22 |
7.42 |
6.71 |
7.18 |
|
I2 |
6.55 |
5.80 |
5.21 |
7.43 |
6.70 |
7.17 |
|
I3 |
6.54 |
5.80 |
5.21 |
7.44 |
6.71 |
7.18 |
|
I4 |
6.53 |
5.79 |
5.21 |
7.43 |
6.70 |
7.17 |
|
AVERAGE |
6.545 |
5.80 |
5.2125 |
7.43 |
6.705 |
7.175 |
|
STDEV |
0.0129 |
0.0082 |
0.0050 |
0.0082 |
0.0058 |
0.0058 |
|
t |
|
0.89 |
0.80 |
|
0.90 |
0.97 |
|
t(θ = 45°) t(θ = 0°) |
|
|
0.90 |
|
|
1.08 |
In Table 1, the illumination units are 102 lx and t is the transmissivity.
As presented in Table 1, all the samples were from the same glass slice.When the incident angle was θ = 0°,the transmittance of light with polarization azimuth α=0° was similar to that of α=90° (0.90/0.89). When the incident angle was θ = 45°, the transmittance of light with polarization azimuth α = 0° was 21% higher than that of α = 90° (0.97/0.80). Increasing the incident angle significantly increased the transmittance of light: t(θ=45°)/t(θ=0°)>1.This phenomenon has been longknown; however the exact underlying mechanism remains unknown.
Table 2 Light transmittance of glass slides at α = 0°
|
|
No S |
θ = 0° 1S |
θ = 0° 2S |
θ =45° 1S |
θ = 45° 2S |
|
I1 |
6.74 |
6.07 |
5.46 |
6.62 |
6.45 |
|
I2 |
6.75 |
6.09 |
5.45 |
6.63 |
6.46 |
|
I3 |
6.76 |
6.08 |
5.46 |
6.64 |
6.44 |
|
I4 |
6.75 |
6.08 |
5.45 |
6.63 |
6.45 |
|
AVERAGE |
6.75 |
6.08 |
5.455 |
6.63 |
6.45 |
|
STDEV |
0.0082 |
0.0082 |
0.0058 |
0.0082 |
0.0082 |
|
t |
|
0.901 |
0.897 |
0.983 |
0.972 |
|
t(θ = 45°) t(θ = 0°) |
|
|
|
1.09 |
1.08 |
In Table 2, the illuminationunits are 102lx.t is transmissivity. 1S is a glasss lide, and 2S denotes two glasss lides.
As presented in Table 2, for glass samples with the same thickness, the transmittance at an incident angle of θ = 45° is higher than that at θ = 0°. At an incident angle of θ = 45°, especially for two glass samples(2S),when the light passes through a distance of 3.11 mm, the transmitted light intensity is 6% higher than that of the glass sample with a thickness of1.1mm at an incident angle of θ = 0°. Increasing the incident angle significantly increases the transmittance of light.When any particle that is independent of the medium ,it scatters electrons. As the thickness of the medium increases, the probability of scattering increases, causing the number of transmitted particles to decrease. However,in the above experiment, the light transmittance increased as the thickness of the medium increased. Why did this unusual phenomenon occur? Is this due to an increase in the incident angle? No! As presented in Table 1, when α = 90°, the transmittance of light decreases as the incident angle increases, similar to the behavior of particles. The real reason for this is the interaction between the light amplitude and electrons of the medium. In the sixth reference, it was proposed that light is a transverse wave on a one-dimensional string, and a novel formula for the refractive index was obtained: n2 =1+k/r3 (1)
where r is the distance from the light path to the center of the electron. As the electrons in the atom move around the nucleus, the average distance is equal to the distance from the light path to the center of the atom,denoted as AO in Fig.1(b).
It is evident that ne1> ne2, and the speed of light at E1 is less than that at E2. Because light has amplitude, this speed difference causes a leftward deflection of the light, thereby increasing the transmitted light. Therefore, two conditions are required to produce the experimental results above:light is a transverse wave with amplitude in the medium, and electrons must be present in the medium to introduce light. Thus, we can deduce that an increase in the electron density of the medium should lead to the introduction of more light when the amplitude of light remains constant. The results of Experiment 3 confirm this conclusion, as presented in Table3.
Table 3 Light transmittance of quartz crystal orientation c and b
|
X cut quartz |
No S |
c θ = 0° |
c θ =45° |
b θ = 0° |
b θ = 45° |
|
I1 |
1.24 |
1.13 |
1.16 |
1.15 |
1.20 |
|
I2 |
1.24 |
1.12 |
1.16 |
1.15 |
1.20 |
|
I3 |
1.24 |
1.12 |
1.15 |
1.14 |
1.19 |
|
I4 |
1.23 |
1.12 |
1.16 |
1.14 |
1.20 |
|
AVERAGE |
1.238 |
1.123 |
1.158 |
1.145 |
1.198 |
|
STDEV |
0.005 |
0.005 |
0.005 |
0.006 |
0.005 |
|
t |
|
0.907 |
0.935 |
0.925 |
0.968 |
|
t(θ = 45°) t(θ = 0°) |
|
|
1.031 |
|
1.046 |
Table 3 I1-I4 are the illuminations and the units are103lx. t is transmissivity.
Table 3 presents the intensity and transmittance of light for different crystal orientations in a single quartz crystal. In a single quartz crystal,the smaller the distance between the crystal faces in a crystal orientation,the higher the density of atoms and electrons in that direction, and this increases the medium density of the electron in that direction and strengthens its effect on the amplitude,resulting in an increased transmittance of light.In Table 3, the ratio of transmittance t(θ = 45°)/t(θ = 0°) increases from1.031 to 1.046 from crystal orientation c to b, indicating that the Higher the electron density in a crystal orientation,the stronger the enhancing effect on light transmission.
Unlike single crystals, glass sheets exhibit the same effect in all directions. The medium density( ρ) of electron is nonlinea [7] : 
where is the medium density of the vacuum, the medium density of all substances is higher than the vacuum, so ρ > ρ0, the speed of light in all substances is lower than that in a vacuum.
from ne =(ne1+ne2 )/2, and (2)–(4), we obtain:
ne> no . Because the nonlinear medium of electrons in glass, there is always ne>no in a glass sheet.
The refractive index of a medium is an important indicator of its speed of light. Eq. (1) can be used for the same medium. For different media,k is different,and the density of the medium along the light path plays a primary role in the speed of light. Figure 2 illustrates a schematic of the interaction between light paths and atoms ingases.
At a temperature of 0 ℃ and pressure of 1 atm, the distance between hydrogen molecules is d = 33.396 Å. The maximum distance from the light path to the center of the molecule is d/2. If the molecules are static but randomly distributed, the average distance from the light path to the center of the molecule is d/4. When the molecules are in high-speed motion and randomly distributed, the average distance from the light path to the center of the molecule should decrease to d/8. Only mathematicians could prove this theory; however, we demonstrated it using experimental data：
AO = d/8 = 33.396/8 = 4.1745Å.
Because the density of the medium of electrons plays a primary role in the refractive index, the radius of the atom r0 brings the electrons closer to the light path, r0= e/(8E) =7.1988/E .
the r in Formula (1) should be changed to r=AO-r0=4.1745-r0
the coefficient in Formula(1) is knef2πr02 , nef is the effective number of electron in the outer layer.The density of the medium at the light path is proportional to the range of motion of the outer electrons,which is represented by a spherical surface of 2πr02.
Finally, the refractive index formula for the gases is obtained as follows:
E is the first ionizing energy.
The first ionization energy of hydrogen E=13.59844ev ,hydrogen refractive index n=1.000139 substituting in (5) gives: k = 0.00764434
In hydrogen gas,when light passes near a hydrogen molecule,it is affected by one electron, the other electron on the other side of the hydrogen molecule is blocked and can not contribute to the refractive index; thus,nef=1.
The first ionization energy of helium E=24.58741 ev. In helium gas, when light passes near a helium atom, it is affected by one electron, whereas the other electron on the opposite side of the helium atom is blocked and cannot contribute to light propagation. Substituting nef =1 into (5) gives.n=1.00003521, which is larger than the experimental value (1.000035) 2.1 × 10-7.the experimental value[8] in 00C 1atm 589.3nm.
The first ionization energy of argon E=15.75962 ev.There are six electrons in the outer layer of the argon atoms,and when light passes near the argon atom,it is affected by the three electrons on the right.nef=3, substituting in (5) gives n=1.0002926, which is larger than the experimental value (1.000284) 8.6 × 10 -6.
The first ionization energy of xenon E=12.1298 ev.There are eight electrons in the outer layer of the xenon atoms; when light passes near the xenon atom, it is affected by four electrons on the right.nef = 4, substituting in (5) gives n=1.0007368, which is larger than the experimental value (1.000702) 3.5 × 10 -5.
The first ionization energy of oxygen E=13.61806 ev.There are four electrons in the outer layer of the oxygen molecule: when the light passes near the oxygen molecule, it is affected by two electrons on the right, nef = 2, substituting in (5) gives n=1.0002770, which is larger than the experimental value (1.000272) 5.0 × 10-6.
The first ionization energy of chlorine E=12.96764 ev. There are ten electrons in the outer layer of the chlorine molecule; when the light passes near the chlorine molecule, it is affected by five electrons on the right, nef = 5 substituting in(5) gives n=1.0007804,which is larger than the experimental value（1.0007733）7.1 × 10-6.
The aforementioned refractive-index calculation value has a high degree of accuracy without correction, which proves that light is a transverse wave on a one-dimensional string and that the formula for the density of the medium of electrons is accurate.
-
We conducted experiments to demonstrate that light is a transverse wave on a one-dimensional string, with the light wave possessing
-
These experiments support the notion that electrons contain non- linearmedia.
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The novel refractive index formula was adopted to calculate the refractive indices of helium, argon, xenon, oxygen, and chlorine gases. The calculated values closely matched the experimental results, substantiating the accuracy of Conclusions 1 and2.
Author contributions statement
Yunchuan Tian :design of the work; the acquisition, analysis, interpretation of data; substantively revised it.ZhenyuanTian: interpretation of data; have drafted the work.
Competing interests statement
The authors declare no competing interests.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Professor FuHui Wang of Northeastern University for hisassistance.
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There is NO Competing Interest.