Gender and household food security in Ghana: Assessing food security and dietary diversity among male-and female-headed cocoa households and its associated factors in the Juaboso-Bia landscape

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3100349/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Gender and household food security in Ghana: Assessing food security and dietary diversity among male-and female-headed cocoa households and its associated factors in the Juaboso-Bia landscape

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3100349/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Malnutrition is a wicked problem that affects every country in the globe, affecting one in three individuals, including Ghana. 690 million people were undernourished globally in 2019, according to estimates from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 50% of child mortality has been attributed to malnutrition. The study used mixed research methods to gather primary data to investigate dietary diversity distribution and food and nutrition security status among male and female-headed cocoa households and its associated factors. Through this study, it was revealed that 62.8% of the male-headed cocoa households had medium to high dietary diversity compared to their female counterpart 39.3%. Also, the male-headed cocoa households recalled eating legumes/nuts (13%) and milk products (18.5%) were consumed less, whereas female-headed cocoa households least consumed the following food groups: sugar/honey (17.5%), oil/fat/butter (17%), spices/tea/condiments (16.5%), eggs (12.5%), organic meat (8.5%), fruits (7.5%), legumes/nuts (7%), and milk product (4.5%). Moreover, the months that the male-headed households recalled facing severe food unavailability were in July, June, April, and May, however, for the female-headed households, the severe months were June, July, March, February, and January. Climate change/variability, unavailable lands, poverty, large household size, and gender stereotypes were factors promoting low dietary diversity among male and female-headed households. Furthermore, 91.7% of the male-headed households and 88.6% of the female-headed households shared that cocoa expansion affects crop diversification in the study area. This study recommends that the government should educate cocoa households on the utmost importance of eating balanced diets, and empower female-headed households.

Dietary diversity

Food security

Gender

Cocoa households

Sustainable Development Goals

Nutrition

Globally, one in three people suffers from malnutrition, a problem that affects all nations (Ochieng et al., 2017). Approximately 690 million people worldwide were undernourished in 2019, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimate (cited in Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021). Thus, one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations is to eradicate all kinds of malnutrition and ensure that everyone has year-round access to safe, sufficient, and nutritious food. In emerging nations, malnutrition can become worse, particularly in rural areas where the poorest people are most concentrated (Cordero Ahimán et al., 2017). Malnutrition has many different root causes, but it is more prevalent in areas where there is evidence of rising food insecurity, which is frequently linked to the occurrence of climate change events (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021).

Despite major advancements in food and nutrition security over the past few decades, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and South Asia, the prevalence of undernutrition is still high (Ochieng et al., 2017). In Ghana, there have been numerous attempts to reduce the rate of malnutrition, and these efforts have steadily improved (Frempong & Annim, 2017). However, Ghana still struggles with the issue of malnutrition, which has contributed to 50% of child fatalities (Asiedu et al., 2017). Malnutrition in Ghana is largely attributed to high intake of carbohydrate-rich food, namely cassava, maize, and rice, and inadequate food intake rich in vitamins and proteins, for example, meat, eggs, milk products, legumes, and fruits (Kenkhuis, 2016).

The Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape is a rural district where its inhabitants are predominantly cocoa farmers and also engage in subsistence farming (Ajagun et al., 2021). Many cocoa households in this area have expanded their cocoa production intending to increase their household income and secure their food and nutrition security (Ajagun et al., 2021; Ashiagbor et al., 2020). This cocoa production expansion ends up displacing food croplands hence exacerbating households’ food and nutrition insecurity in this cocoa rural district (Ajagun et al., 2021). Chegere and Stage (2020) argued that food availability in rural places depends on the environment's natural resources and the ability to produce food through agriculture, more specifically, the availability of a variety of agricultural items for self-consumption raises the dietary diversity of households in agricultural production areas. A study by Kenkhuis (2016) showed that in cocoa growing areas, cocoa households usually consume staple foods (roots, tubers, oil, and small dried fish) which are not sufficient in micronutrients to counter undernutrition. Malnutrition occurs in Ghana's cocoa regions as a result of the majority of cocoa households' undiversified diets (consuming less than 5 food groups daily), which also stunts their growth, especially among women (Kenkhuis, 2016).

Food and nutrition security has several facets, and one of them is the quality of diets, and the dietary diversity score (DDS) is a well-known numerical indicator of diet quality (Heim & Paksi, 2019; Kadiyala & Rawat, 2013; Ochieng et al., 2017; Oldewage-Theron & Kruger, 2011). Dietary diversity offers information on the availability of a variety of foods in a household and can be used as a proxy for a person's diet's nutrient sufficiency (Isabirye et al., 2020). For example, an increase in a person's dietary diversity score is related to an increase in diet nutrient sufficiency (Kennedy et al., 2011). Healthy eating is defined as consuming a varied, well-balanced diet that includes foods high in vitamins and minerals, as well as fruits, vegetables, and fresh, natural meals (Isabirye et al., 2020). It also requires practicing healthy eating practices and engaging in activities that advance one's physical and mental health (Kenkhuis, 2016; Powell et al., 2017; Taruvinga et al., 2013). The number of various foods or food groups in a diet is used to calculate dietary diversity. A concept known as household dietary diversity (HDD) is used to gauge a household's capacity to pay for a range of foods throughout a given time period (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021). A common tool for qualitatively evaluating food consumption, including the degree of variety of foods that a household has access to, is the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), which is generated from the dietary diversity questionnaire (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021). This HDDS is limited by factors, such as income, land size, household size, source of staple food, and age and education level of the household (Ajagun et al., 2021; Cordero Ahimán et al., 2017; Idowu & Olusayo, 2019; Isabirye et al., 2020; Koppmair et al., 2017; Sambo et al., 2022).

Despite studies conducted in other countries that provide information on how diverse a household's diet is among adolescents and adults, the Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape in Ghana has little information on the distribution of dietary diversity and food security patterns among male and female-headed cocoa households, and associated factors (Ajagun et al., 2021; Asefach & Nigatu, 2007; Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021; Idowu & Olusayo, 2019; Jebessa et al., 2019; Kadiyala & Rawat, 2013; Kenkhuis, 2016; Taruvinga et al., 2013). But for the proper implementation of tailored nutrition treatments as well as to inform and provide feedback to development activities, it is crucial to comprehend dietary diversity across male and female-headed households within the highest levels of food insecurity (Heim & Paksi, 2019; Isabirye et al., 2020). Therefore, this study sought to examine the dietary diversity distribution and food and nutrition security status among male and female-headed cocoa households and its influencing factors in the Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape. Research questions explored for answers were: how is the food variety consumed in male and female-headed cocoa households’ distributed?; where do the male and female-headed cocoa households obtain their staple food?; which months do the male and female-headed cocoa households experience low consumption of dietary diversity?; what are the contributing factors for the low dietary diversity pattern in the male and female-headed cocoa households’?; and how do the male and female-headed cocoa households view the relationship between cocoa expansion and crop diversification?

This study employed the conceptual framework by Meinzen-Dick et al. (2011) to explain the relationship between gender and food security. Food and nutrition security status of female and male-headed households are diverse globally, nationally, and locally (Kanter et al., 2015; Meinzen-Dick et al., 2011; Pieters et al., 2013). The differences in the food or nutritional status of male and female-headed households are influenced by access to and control over resources or assets, such as land, agricultural inputs, fiancé, and labor (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2011; Ochieng et al., 2017). This situation is no different from that of the Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape (Fig. 1). Female-headed households may have limited or no access to resources, such as credit, labor, land, extension officers, and farm inputs, which in the long run may lead to low dietary diversity. The male-headed households may have full access to and control over resources and that will improve and cause those households to have high dietary diversity.

3.1 Location of the Study Area

The Juaboso-Bia landscape is notable for its contribution to Ghana’s cocoa production (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). The Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape encompasses Bia East, Bia West, and Juaboso districts, but for this study, only Bia West and Juaboso districts were studied. The studied area is located in the Western North Region of Ghana. The area lies within 2⁰ 40' W and 3⁰ 20' W longitude, and 6⁰ 10' N and 6⁰ 50' N latitude (Fig. 2). The studied landscape is endowed with natural resources, such as the Bia National Park and the Krokosua Hills forest reserves (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). The population of the landscape is estimated to be 147, 374 by Ghana Statistical Service (2014). The major rainfall season is between May and June and the minor season is from September to October (Ajagun et al., 2021). The occupation of the inhabitants is predominately agriculture, with cocoa being the largest cash crop cultivated by almost every household (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). The other food crops grown are plantain, cassava, yam, cocoyam, oil palm, maize, rice, etc. Some households occasionally intercrop these food crops with cocoa farms, while others produce them on a small parcel of land for livelihood.

3.2 Research design

Mixed research methods integrate qualitative and quantitative research designs employed to analyze phenomena and may occur in different approaches (Wheeldon, 2010). With this technique, it is possible to assess the consistency of data collected using a variety of instruments, compare and contrast one method's findings with another, and show how the results of one approach can affect other research strategies, for example, qualitative data could help researchers to well describe their findings from quantitative data (Teye, 2012; Wheeldon, 2010).

3.3 Data collection

This study collected primary data from the cocoa farmers in the Juaboso-Bia landscape in the form of quantitative and qualitative data. With the quantitative method, the study administered 200 semi-structured questionnaires in the Juaboso-Bia landscape. Following Sultana et al. (2021), Taylor (2017), Ajagun et al. (2022), and Aneani et al. (2012), the multi-sampling technique was used to select the cocoa household heads from these communities, particularly, Yawmatwa, Adjuafoa, Kojoaba, Asuopiri, Akaatiso, Nkrabea, Bechema, Bonso Nkwanta, and Juaboso. The questionnaires covered the household heads’ dietary diversity score, food shortage periods, and demographic data (sex, age, education, cocoa landuse type, etc). The dietary diversity of the cocoa household heads was measured using Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) following Al-Zabir et al. (2021) and Taruvinga et al. (2013). The HDDS included 12 local food groups (see Table 2) that was used to analyze the dietary diversity of the male and female-headed cocoa households in the study area. A household was scored 1 if that household consumed any of the 12 food groups in the past 24- hours, otherwise 0. The total score was 12 which was further categorized into low dietary diversity (0–4); medium dietary diversity (5–8); and high dietary diversity (9–12).

Table 1

Household dietary diversity score
Food groups	Points (Yes = “1”; No = “0”)
1. Any bread, rice, noodles, biscuits, or any other foods made from millet, sorghum, maize, rice, wheat, or any other locally available grain	1
2. Any potatoes, yams, manioc, cassava, or any other foods made from roots or tubers	1
3. Any vegetables	1
4. Any fruits; mango, orange, pineapple, etc	1
5. Any beef, pork, lamb, goat, rabbit, wild game, chicken, duck, other birds, liver kidney, heart, or other organ meats	1
6. Any eggs	1
7. Any fresh, dried fish or shellfish	1
8. Any legumes; beans, peas, lentils, or nuts	1
9. Any cheese, yogurt, milk, or other milk products	1
10. Any foods made with oil, fat, or butter	1
11. Any sugar or honey	1
12. Any other foods such as spices, condiments, coffee, or tea	1
Total Points	12
Source: ( modified Taruvinga et al., 2013)

The survey data was cleaned and coded in Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). The correct responses were analyzed employing descriptive frequency statistics.

Qualitatively, an in-depth interview data collection method was utilized, for instance, the usage of an in-depth interview approach aids in understanding the realities and social worlds that actors encounter daily, including their lived experiences, complexities, negotiations, views, conflicts, and shared meanings (Limb & Dwyer, 2001), as well as give way to the power dynamics, desires, and motives that shape how certain places, people, and events are portrayed (Teye, 2012). The purposive sampling technique was used to select the participants because it aids in choosing respondents based on their skills, attributes, and knowledge (Koerber & McMichael, 2008). The total number of participants engaged in the in-depth interviews was 14 household heads, which comprised 6 male and 6 female-headed households that had over 20 years of cocoa farming experience. The study selected 2 participants from each of these communities namely; Juabeso, Bonso Nkwanta, Benchema, Adjuafua, Yawmatwa, Essam-Debiso, and kojoaba. The in-depth interviews probed questions, such as reasons for their household dietary diversity status, opinion on cocoa expansion and crop diversification relationship, and their food unavailability experiences. The information from the interviews was categorized into themes and used to validate and support the quantitative findings. The thematic analysis was employed to identify the differences and similarities and analyze and interpret the gendered distribution pattern of the dietary diversity of the cocoa households.

4.1 Distribution of dietary diversity and source of food consumed in cocoa households in the Juaboso-Bia landscape

In the Juaboso-Bia landscape, it was observed that there was an unfair distribution in the amount of the 12 food groups consumed in households headed by women than that households headed by men. According to Fig. 3, the male-headed households recalled eating roots/tubers (58%), vegetables (55.5%), oil/fat/butter (49.5%), local grains (42.5%), seafood (36.5%), and sugar/honey (30%), respectively. These food groups were averagely consumed in male-headed households, particularly organic meat, fruits, spice/tea/condiments, and eggs, ranging from 22 to 29.5%. Legumes/nuts (13%) and milk products (18.5%) were consumed less.

The households headed by women also reported these food groups being consumed the most namely roots/tubers (38%) and vegetables (37%). The food groups consumed on average were seafood (27%), and local grains (22%). The least consumed food groups were sugar/honey (17.5%), oil/fat/butter (17%), spices/tea/condiments (16.5%), eggs (12.5%), organic meat (8.5%), fruits (7.5%), legumes/nuts (7%), and milk product (4.5%). According to Table 1, low dietary diversity was more prevalent in female-headed households (60.8%) than the male-headed households (37.2%). Medium and high dietary diversity was high in the male-headed households, specifically 30.6% and 32.2% compared to the female-headed households, such as 19% and 20.3%, respectively.

Table 1

Dietary diversity status among the male and female-headed cocoa households in the Juaboso-Bia landscape
Household dietary diversity status	Sex
Household dietary diversity status	Female	Male
Low dietary diversity (0–4)	48 (60.8%)	45 (37.2%)
Medium dietary diversity (5–8)	15 (19%)	37 (30.6%)
High dietary diversity (9–12)	16 (20.3%)	39 (32.2%)
Total	79	121
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

4.2 Food unavailability experience of male and female-headed cocoa households

The male ( 66.1%) and female (83.5%)-headed households indicated that they face food shortages or unavailability in the study areas (Table 2). They expressed that food shortage or unavailability experience could be severe, average, and low according to certain months.

Table 2

Food unavailability experience of male and female-headed cocoa households in the Juaboso-Bia landscape in 2022
Food unavailability experience	Sex		Total
Food unavailability experience	Female	Male	Total
Yes	66 (83.5%)	80 (66.1%)	146
No	13 (16.5%)	41 (33.9%)	54
Total	79	121	200
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The months that the male-headed households recalled facing severe food unavailability were in July, June, April, and May, however, for the female-headed households, the severe months were June, July, March, February, and January (Fig. 4). The average severe food shortage months were March, August, February, January, and September for the male-headed households, and May, April, and December for female-headed households. The low severe food unavailability months for female-headed households were August, September, October, and November. On the other hand, December, November, and October were less recorded food shortage months for households headed by men.

4.3 Sources of staple food among the male and female-headed households

Households headed by males and females in the studied area expressed that they obtain their staple foods through self-production, market, both self-production and market and others. According to Table 3, 81% of the female-headed households got their food from both self-production and the market, 10.1% from self-production, 8.9% from the market, and no household indicated through others (0%). In addition, for households that said they obtained their food from the market, 59 of the households walked less than 30 minutes, 12 got it from the nearby communities, and no household said others (Fig. 5).

Table 3

Sources of staple food for male and female-headed households
Sources of staple food	Sex		Total
Sources of staple food	Female	Male	Total
Self-production	8 (10.1%)	37 (30.6%)	45
Market	7 (8.9%)	5 (4.1%)	12
Self-production and market	64 (81.0%)	78 (64.5%)	142
Others	0 (0%)	1 (0.8%)	1
Total	79	121	200
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Interestingly, 0.8% of the male-headed households obtained food through others, while 4.1%, 30.6%, and 64.5% of the male-headed households had food via market, self-production, and both market and self-production, respectively. Also, of the 86 male-headed households that claimed to have walked to get food from the market, 51 walked less than 30 minutes, 34 claimed to have gotten their food from adjacent villages, and 1 claimed to have gotten it from somewhere else (Fig. 5).

5.1 Gender of the household head and dietary diversity pattern distribution

The findings from this present study suggest that roots/tubers, vegetables, oil/fat/butter, local grains, seafood, and sugar/honey were highly consumed in male-headed households, whereas only roots/tubers and vegetables were mostly eaten in female-headed households. This food group pattern indicates that both male and female-headed households heavily rely on roots/tubers, local grains, and vegetables because of their low cost and self-production (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021).

“We eat vegetable stew with cassava, yam, cocoyam, and maize most of the time because it is our basic diet. I grow these foods on my family farm, so I don't always have to buy them. I get these food items from the market when I run out because they are inexpensive”(Key informant interview, 23 January 2023).

This finding was similar to that of Cordero-Ahiman et al. (2021) in Ecuador and Powell et al. (2017) in Tanzania (East Usambara Mountain). However, it disagreed with the findings of Kumar and Gautam (2022), who revealed that green vegetables are hardly eaten in rural households.

The seafood group, such as fish which is rich in protein and is good for human growth and development was highly consumed in male-headed households and average in female-headed households. This could be partially explained by the fact that male-headed households had more income sources and financial capacity than female-headed households (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2011). This present finding was inconsistent with the findings of Ochieng et al. (2017) in Tanzania, Legwegoh and Hovorka (2013) in Botswana, and (Cordero Ahimán et al., 2017) in Mexico. Also, Idowu and Olusayo (2019) found that female-headed households consumed higher seafood than male-headed households, which was contrary to this present study.

Food groups namely eggs, milk products, organic meat, legumes/nuts, and fruits are essential for the human body daily because of their protein, vitamins, and minerals content (Hernandez, 2018). Regardless, these food groups were least eaten in female-headed households, which is largely due to lack of income or poverty, and was corroborated by the findings of Cordero-Ahiman et al. (2021). The lack of this food group consumption in female-headed households could imply that such households experience malnutrition (Isabirye et al., 2020; Nithya & Bhavani, 2018). For example, a female headed-household noted that;

“I never really consider the meats or eggs (quality) of the meals I offer to my kids because I'm always more concerned about the quantity. We can buy a lot of cassava or maize and that will provide us with enough food to last us for approximately a month with the money that will be used to purchase meats, milk, eggs, fruits, and legumes. These food groups are extremely expensive to buy here on the market, and they won't even satisfy my kids as much as local cereals and roots/tubers do”(Key informant interview, 20 January 2023).

On the other hand, these food groups were relatively highly consumed in male-headed households, and this finding was contrary to that of Ochieng et al. (2017).

According to the result, the oil/fat/butter food group was consumed mostly in male-headed households and least consumed in female-headed households. High consumption of unhealthy fatty or oily food is unhealthy and may lead to obesity and other health complications associated with fatty foods (Chandler, 2018). This present result suggests that male-headed households may stand a higher chance of having obesity or other health complications as a result of excessive consumption of unhealthy fatty foods than female-headed households.

Concerning the household dietary diversity status of this study (Table 1), the general dietary diversity pattern distribution was skewed towards the males and unfairly towards the female-headed households. Specifically, the low dietary diversity was more widespread in female-headed (60.8%) households than in their male counterparts (37.2%). The combination of medium and high dietary diversity in male-headed households was 62.8%, which is statistically greater than what female-headed households obtained (39.3%). Generally, the male-headed households had a relatively good dietary diversity (62.8%) even though 37.2% had low dietary diversity. This connotes that the male-headed households consumed relatively high dietary diversity, which improve their food and nutrition security than female-headed households. This evidence confirmed the findings of Kumar and Gautam (2022) and Ochieng et al. (2017), who found that low dietary diversity is more frequent in female-headed households than in men-headed households in Uttar Pradesh State, India, and Tanzania (Bahi District and Mbarali District), respectively. In addition, this was not in agreement with the findings of Idowu and Olusayo (2019), who revealed that female-headed households had relatively higher dietary diversity than male-headed households.

5.2 Gender of the household head and food unavailability

Food shortage or unavailability was prevalent in April, May, June, and July for male-headed households, but female-headed households experienced it in February, March, June, and July. Both households shared similar months of food unavailability, such as June and July. May, June, and July happen to be the major rainy season, which usually destroys food crops and make poor households vulnerable to food insecurity (Ajagun et al., 2021). Again, due to the rainy months, from July to September, Kiewisch (2015) discovered that households in the cocoa industry in Ghana go without food during those months, and the income generated by cocoa sales also runs out before the following harvest. The dry season which is from December to March dries most food crops and make households food insure. Some households eat one meal, usually starchy or carbohydrate foods (such as cassava, yam, and cocoyam) a day during long dry season. For instance, in an interview with a head of a cocoa household, he shared that;

“When the rainy season approaches, especially in June and July, when the rains are particularly severe and threaten to ruin my food crops, I start to worry a lot. Also, the food I store for the rainy season is consumed quickly, causing my family to eat fewer meals each day. We occasionally go without food to eat. My home experiences food shortages throughout the dry season in December to March because the weather is so dry that the crops are unable to flourish” (Key informant interview, 20 January 2023).

Similarly, Ochieng et al. (2017) found that male-headed households in Tanzania's Bahi District and Mbarali District had food shortages from mid-November to March, to the point that such households consume just one meal per day, typically consisting of ugali, cassava, and rice.

5.3: Implications of sources of staple food on household dietary diversity status

The types or sources of food a household rely on greatly determine the status of the dietary diversity of the household either low, medium, or high. As evident in Table 4, families who rely primarily on the market or self-production have a higher propensity to have a low level of dietary diversity because they may experience greater hardship during times of famine than households that depend on both self-production and the market. This implies that households need to supplement their self-production with produce from the market to ensure their food and nutrition security all year round.

Table 4

Sources of local food and dietary diversity status nexus
Sources of staple food	Dietary diversity status			Total
Sources of staple food	Low	Medium	High	Total
Self-production	32 (34.4%)	10 (19.2%)	3 (5.5%)	45
Market	10 (10.8%)	2 (3.8%)	0 (0%)	12
Self-production and Market	50 (53.8%)	40 (76.9%)	52 (94.5%)	142
Others	1 (1.1%)	0 (0%)	0 0%)	1
Total	93	52	55	200
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

This finding is in line with that of Koppmair et al. (2017), who revealed that while farm production diversity alone has a negligible impact on dietary diversity, it has a higher impact when combined with goods bought from the market.

5.4: Factors accounting for low dietary diversity in male and female-headed cocoa households

5.4.1: Climate change/ variability

One of the key determinants of dietary diversity identified by the local people was climate change. The abrupt changes in the weather in the studied region have affected the cocoa household heads in diverse ways, according to the respondents. A common theme that emerged from the interviews was that the recent climate change or variation had negatively impacted many of the households, leaving the afflicted households vulnerable to food insecurity and low dietary diversity. The food diversity of their households is impacted by some seasonal variations that do not make certain crop types flourish.

One of the interviewees stated that;

“I remember when I was young, my father used to cultivate a lot of foodstuffs even to the point of selling some to other households. This was because there was an abundant and reliable rainfall pattern. However, in this era, the rains fall unexpectedly and heavily to the extent of destroying most grown crops on my farms. Due to this, my household eats what is available and mostly not rich in vitamins and not a balanced diet” (Key informant interview, 20 January 2023).

Another household head mentioned that;

“Climate change has resulted in the death of our cocoa trees and food crops since the crops receive too much sunlight hence declining the yields generated from cocoa and food production. Due to the sudden arrival of the rains and dryness, we are currently unsure of what to plant. Even some of our poultries die as a result of excessive heat and do not get to eat their products” (Key informant interview, 22 January 2023).

Also, Powell et al. (2017) discovered that food scarcity or unavailability caused by changes in seasonality affects the diversity of the locals' diets in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania.

5.4.2: Poverty/ Income

Both male and female-headed households agreed that income or wealth or poverty is a significant factor that can affect a household’s dietary diversity. A household with a higher income could afford to buy different crop seeds, buy more land, and hire more farm laborers on his or her farms, thereby increasing the dietary diversity and food security of the household. Many of the cocoa farmers expressed that they lack money to diversify their diets in the studied area. For example, these two participants respectively stipulated that;

“Hmm!, I have been farming cocoa for almost 3 decades and I cannot boast of eating a well-balanced diet every day. My household only eats starchy foods, such as cassava, plantain, yam, and vegetables, such as tomatoes and garden eggs, because that is what I can afford” (Key informant interview, 26 January 2023).

“Sometimes, I feel shy to tell my non-cocoa farmers friends that I have not even seen chocolate before, and I consume chocolate drinks occasionally. I cannot even feed my household members with cheap food, for example, “abom” (literally means vegetable stew with either yam or cocoyam or cassava) let alone talk of eating fruits, eggs, and meat. Due to traders' perception that this area is a wealthy cocoa district, these food items are very expensive to purchase” (Key informant interview, 2 February 2023).

Because of a lack of income or poverty, most of these households experience low dietary diversity or food insecurity, and in other studies, similar results have been discovered (Ajagun et al., 2021; Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021; Powell et al., 2017).

5.4.3: Unavailable lands

Lands are a major resource needed for agricultural activities. A household's dietary diversity can be influenced by the size of the land since a greater land area would allow for the growth of more different crops, protecting the household's food security and diet diversity (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021). The local people in the Juaboso-Bia landscape complained that there is no available land for them to cultivate food crops. Since they used all their lands for cocoa production. Most of them cultivate food crops under small cocoa trees, which is not enough for their sustenance, thus influencing their dietary diversity status. In an interview with a cocoa farmer, it was revealed that;

“Currently, we have used all the lands for cocoa production and there is no available land in this district to grow food. I gave up my land for cocoa production to increase the income and food diversity for my family, but that goal was never realized, and now my family is starving and unable to consume cocoa because it is not edible” (Key informant interview, 1 February 2023).

In addition, this participant said;

“The government through the forestry commission allocated portions of the off-reserved forest to us to cultivate our food crops some time back. The condition was to replant trees after harvest before shifting to a new place to begin another cultivation. Failure to do so will lead to the prevention of cocoa farmers from entering the off-reserved to grow food crops. Some farmers failed to comply with the condition regardless of the number of warnings given, therefore we were restricted from growing food crops there and this has affected my household production” (Key informant interview, 26 January 2023).

Similar findings were made by Ajagun et al. (2021), who found that no land was left available for crop farming because the Juaboso District's cocoa farmers had turned their food cropland into cocoa farms for a variety of reasons that harmed their ability to feed themselves. Their studies further noted that some farmers grow food crops in portions under cocoa rehabilitation, and some households barely get food to eat in a day.

5.4.4: Large household size

The size of a household may increase or decrease the household head’s ability to provide more diverse food for his or her household members. Many studies, such as Powell et al. (2017), Ajagun et al. (2021), Jebessa et al. (2019), and Mekuria et al. (2017) have shown that larger household sizes stand a higher chance of having food insecurity since the head of the household who have many mouths to feed.

“I have about 10 household members and due to that I barely buy food items rich in vitamins because those food items do not satisfy me and my family. Thus, I regularly buy less expensive food usually starchy food, which is not well rich in vitamins since all my children can eat and get satisfied” (Key informant interview, 31 January 2023).

However, larger households may be better able to maintain a diverse diet since they will have access to more sources of income and hence more money to spend on different types of food (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021).

5.4.5: Gender stereotypes/ beliefs

This finding supports the notion that both men and women in rural communities do face gender stereotypes or beliefs, which goes a long way to affect their production, hence leading to low dietary diversity (Ochieng et al., 2017; Powell et al., 2017). One participant from the study area said that;

“Before the demise of my husband, we ate a well-balanced diet almost every day. After his death, the household responsibility has become very heavy for me to feed myself and my children balanced diets. Because I am the head of the family, I am most times denied access to some of the cocoa farms, extension officers, and other resources to increase my cocoa yields, hence boosting my household dietary diversity” (Key informant interview, 24 January 2023).

Contrarily, Powell et al. (2017) asserted that although women who are heads of households go through gender-based obstacles, many of them have broken the barriers to provide good diets for their households. In another interview with one of the participants, he revealed that;

“I do occasionally find it challenging to give my family a variety of foods to consume every day to grow well and strong, even though I am a man and the leader of my household. This is because some of my male friends point hands at me and call me all sorts of names for having a small land size, being unable to cultivate different crops, and being a cocoa care-taker for other households headed by men” (Key informant interview, 28 January 2023).

This evidence was alike to that of Ochieng et al. (2017), who disclosed that men in Tanzania also experience gender-based stereotypes, for instance, the local people believed that men who take food, such as vegetables or meat home are controlled by their wives. These gender beliefs have a significant implication on the food and nutrition security of the cocoa farmers in the Juaboso-Bia landscape.

5.5: Perception of male and female-headed cocoa households on the implication of cocoa expansion on crop diversification in the Juaboso-Bia landscape

The relationship between cocoa expansion and crop diversification remains unclear. The local cocoa household heads were engaged to ascertain their thoughts on the effects of cocoa expansion on crop diversification. 91.7% of the male-headed households and 88.6% of the female-headed households (Fig. 6) shared that the ability of households to grow other crops is constrained when they increase the area of their farms to produce more cocoa. Hence, this will have an impact on household food security and diet quality.

An interview with one participant claimed that;

“The cocoa has eaten our croplands, so I do not have a variety of food to eat. The land I could have used to grow crops, such as cassava, vegetables, yam, and rice, I have used it to expand my cocoa farm. I believe when we continue to expand cocoa, we will one day wake up with no different kinds of food to consume. Because of this, the prices of foodstuffs on the market are expensive to buy” (Key informant interview, 28 January 2023).

Several studies have shown that the cultivation of different crops on a farm increases the chances of households having a higher dietary diversity and securing their food security than households that do the opposite (Cordero-Ahiman et al., 2021; Koppmair et al., 2017). Moreover, Anderman et al. (2014) disclosed that when cocoa household heads increase the size of their cocoa farm, they become more dependent on the markets for agricultural products, which raises the cost of food and jeopardizes their ability to feed their families. Despite this, Sibhatu and Qaim (2018) claimed that multiple sustenance production frequently makes a smaller impact on dietary diversity than cash revenue from market sales.

This study employed both quantitative and qualitative research methods to examine the dietary diversity distribution and food security pattern among male and female-headed cocoa households. Through this study, it was revealed that a higher percentage of male-headed households had high dietary diversity compared to female-headed households. Also, roots/tubers, local grains, and vegetables happened to be the top three consumed foods, while organic meat, eggs, fruits, legumes/nuts, and milk products were the least consumed. Furthermore, April, June, and July were generally the food shortage or unavailability months. Moreover, the majority of the male and female-headed households reported having obtained their food from both the market and self-production. Again, the study found that climate change/variability, poverty, large household size, unavailable lands, and gender stereotypes/ beliefs were factors promoting low dietary diversity among male and female-headed households. The study recommends that the government should educate cocoa farmers on the need to eat balanced diets. The female-headed households should be given adequate financial support to help boost their cocoa production which will later improve their dietary diversity.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

Data used in this research is not shareable with the public since it included the personal information of the farmers and they are made aware that their information will be accessible only to the researcher.

Conflict of Interests

I hereby declare that I am not associated with or otherwise involved in any organization or other body that has a financial or non-financial stake in the topics or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Informed consent

All participants in the study voluntarily agreed to be interviewed.

Ethical approval

Approved

Acknowledgements

I am thankful to the cocoa farmers in the Juaboso-Bia cocoa landscape for giving me the information on their diet and the authorisation to publish the findings of this study. I also appreciate the field facilitators' unwavering assistance during the fieldwork. My heartfelt appreciation goes to the editor and the reviewers for their helpful reviews and comments.

Conflict of interest statement

I declare that I do not have any competing interests.

Ajagun, E. O., Ashiagbor, G., Asante, W. A., Gyampoh, B. A., Obirikorang, K. A., & Acheampong, E. (2021). Cocoa eats the food: expansion of cocoa into food croplands in the Juabeso District, Ghana. Food Security, 1-20. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01227-y
Ajagun, E. O., Ashiagbor, G., Asante, W. A., Gyampoh, B. A., Obirikorang, K. A., & Acheampong, E. (2022). Cocoa eats the food: expansion of cocoa into food croplands in the Juabeso District, Ghana. Food Security, 14(2), 451-470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-021-01227-y
Al-Zabir, A., Wongnaa, C. A., Islam, M. A., & Mozahid, M. N. (2021). Food security status of farming households in Bangladesh: A comparison of recipients and non-receivers of institutional support. African Journal of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 13(4), 449-462. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2020.1804100
Anderman, T. L., Remans, R., Wood, S. A., DeRosa, K., & DeFries, R. S. (2014). Synergies and tradeoffs between cash crop production and food security: a case study in rural Ghana. Food Security, 6, 541-554. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-014-0360-6
Aneani, F., Anchirinah, V., Owusu-Ansah, F., & Asamoah, M. (2012). Adoption of some cocoa production technologies by cocoa farmers in Ghana. Sustainable Agriculture Research, 1(1), 103. https://doi.org/10.5539/sar.v1n1p103
Asefach, A., & Nigatu, R. (2007). Correlates of household food security in densely populated areas of southern Ethiopia: Does the household structure matter? Studies on Home and Community Science, 1(2), 85-91. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09737189.2007.11885238
Ashiagbor, G., Forkuo, E. K., Asante, W. A., Acheampong, E., Quaye-Ballard, J. A., Boamah, P., Mohammed, Y., & Foli, E. (2020). Pixel-based and object-oriented approaches in segregating cocoa from forest in the Juabeso-Bia landscape of Ghana. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, 19, 100349. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsase.2020.100349
Asiedu, B., Nunoo, F., & Iddrisu, S. (2017). Prospects and sustainability of aquaculture development in Ghana, West Africa. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 3(1), 1349531. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2017.1349531
Chandler, B. (2018). What Are the Dangers of Eating Food With Large Amount of Fats & Oils? Retrieved 27-02 from https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/dangers-eating-food-large-amount-fats-oils-6693.html
Chegere, M. J., & Stage, J. (2020). Agricultural production diversity, dietary diversity and nutritional status: Panel data evidence from Tanzania. World Development, 129, 104856. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104856
Cordero-Ahiman, O. V., Vanegas, J. L., Franco-Crespo, C., Beltrán-Romero, P., & Quinde-Lituma, M. E. (2021). Factors that determine the dietary diversity score in rural households: The case of the Paute River Basin of Azuay Province, Ecuador. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 2059. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042059
Cordero Ahimán, O. V., Santellano Estrada, E., & Garrido Colmenero, A. (2017). Dietary diversity in rural households: The case of indigenous communities in Sierra Tarahumara, Mexico. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 5(2), 86-94. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.12691/jfnr-5-2-3
Frempong, R. B., & Annim, S. K. (2017). Dietary diversity and child malnutrition in Ghana. Heliyon, 3(5), e00298. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00298
Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). 2010 Population and Housing Census; Juaboso District Analytical Report. https://www2.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010_District_Report/Western/Juaboso.pdf
Heim, A., & Paksi, A. (2019). Low dietary diversity and its influencing factors among a San group in Namibia. BMC research notes, 12(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-019-4408-8
Hernandez, A. (2018). Why Are Fruits & Vegetables Important? Retrieved 27-02 from https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/fruits-vegetables-important-4703.html
Idowu, O., & Olusayo, A. O. (2019). Dietary diversity status of rural households in Nigeria: A gendered perspective. Dietary diversity status of rural households in Nigeria: a gendered perspective, 613-636.
Isabirye, N., Bukenya, J. N., Nakafeero, M., Ssekamatte, T., Guwatudde, D., & Fawzi, W. (2020). Dietary diversity and associated factors among adolescents in eastern Uganda: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08669-7
Jebessa, G. M., Sima, A. D., & Wondimagegnehu, B. A. (2019). Determinants of household dietary diversity in yayu biosphere reserve, Southwest Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Science and Technology, 12(1), 45-68. https://doi.org/10.4314/ejst.v12i1.3
Kadiyala, S., & Rawat, R. (2013). Food access and diet quality independently predict nutritional status among people living with HIV in Uganda. Public health nutrition, 16(1), 164-170. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001200050X
Kanter, R., Walls, H. L., Tak, M., Roberts, F., & Waage, J. (2015). A conceptual framework for understanding the impacts of agriculture and food system policies on nutrition and health. Food Security, 7, 767-777. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12571-015-0473-6
Kenkhuis, M. (2016). Nutritional status among cocoa farming families and underlying causes in Ghana. Student Nutrition and Health at Wageningen University, intern at GAIN. Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition.
Kennedy, G., Ballard, T., & Dop, M. C. (2011). Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Kiewisch, E. (2015). Looking within the household: a study on gender, food security, and resilience in cocoa-growing communities. Gender & Development, 23(3), 497-513. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1095550
Koerber, A., & McMichael, L. (2008). Qualitative sampling methods: A primer for technical communicators. Journal of business and technical communication, 22(4), 454-473. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1050651908320362
Koppmair, S., Kassie, M., & Qaim, M. (2017). Farm production, market access and dietary diversity in Malawi. Public health nutrition, 20(2), 325-335. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980016002135
Kumar, I., & Gautam, M. (2022). Determinants of Dietary Diversity Score for the Rural Households of Uttar Prades State. Int J Food Nutr Diet, 10(1), 9-16.
Legwegoh, A. F., & Hovorka, A. J. (2013). Assessing food insecurity in Botswana: the case of Gaborone. Development in Practice, 23(3), 346-358.
Limb, M., & Dwyer, C. (2001). Qualitative methodologies for geographers: Issues and debates. Oxford University Press.
Meinzen-Dick, R. S., Johnson, N. L., Quisumbing, A. R., Njuki, J., Behrman, J., Rubin, D., Peterman, A., & Waithanji, E. M. (2011). Gender, assets, and agricultural development programs: A conceptual framework. CAPRi Working Paper.
Mekuria, G., Wubneh, Y., & Tewabe, T. (2017). Household dietary diversity and associated factors among residents of finote selam town, north west Ethiopia: a cross sectional study. BMC nutrition, 3, 1-6. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s40795-017-0148-0.
Nithya, D., & Bhavani, R. (2018). Dietary diversity and its relationship with nutritional status among adolescents and adults in rural India. Journal of biosocial science, 50(3), 397-413.
Ochieng, J., Afari-Sefa, V., Lukumay, P. J., & Dubois, T. (2017). Determinants of dietary diversity and the potential role of men in improving household nutrition in Tanzania. PloS one, 12(12), e0189022. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189022.
Oldewage-Theron, W., & Kruger, R. (2011). Dietary diversity and adequacy of women caregivers in a peri-urban informal settlement in South Africa. Nutrition, 27(4), 420-427. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2010.05.013
Pieters, H., Guariso, A., & Vandeplas, A. (2013). Conceptual framework for the analysis of the determinants of food and nutrition security.
Powell, B., Bezner Kerr, R., Young, S. L., & Johns, T. (2017). The determinants of dietary diversity and nutrition: ethnonutrition knowledge of local people in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine, 13(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0150-2
Sambo, T., Oguttu, J., & Mbombo-Dweba, T. (2022). Analysis of the dietary diversity status of agricultural households in the Nkomazi Local Municipality, South Africa. Agriculture & Food Security, 11(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-022-00387-0
Sibhatu, K. T., & Qaim, M. (2018). Farm production diversity and dietary quality: linkages and measurement issues. Food Security, 10, 47-59. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0762-3
Sultana, S., Zaman, S., Chowdhury, A. A., Hasan, I., Haque, M. I., Hossain, M. K., Ahmed, K. R., Chakraborty, P. A., & Hawlader, M. D. H. (2021). Prevalence and factors associated with depression among the mothers of school-going children in Dhaka city, Bangladesh: A multi stage sampling-based study. Heliyon, 7(7), e07493. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07493
Taruvinga, A., Muchenje, V., & Mushunje, A. (2013). Determinants of rural household dietary diversity: The case of Amatole and Nyandeni districts, South Africa. International Journal of Development and Sustainability, 2(4), 2233-2247.
Taylor, B. (2017). Assessing the food security status and production constraints of cocoa farming households in the Ashanti region Thesis of master of philosophy, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana].
Teye, J. K. (2012). Benefits, challenges, and dynamism of positionalities associated with mixed methods research in developing countries: Evidence from Ghana. Journal of mixed methods research, 6(4), 379-391. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1558689812453332
Wheeldon, J. (2010). Mapping mixed methods research: Methods, measures, and meaning. Journal of mixed methods research, 4(2), 87-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689809358755

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Gender and household food security in Ghana: Assessing food security and dietary diversity among male-and female-headed cocoa households and its associated factors in the Juaboso-Bia landscape

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Conceptual framework

3. Methods and Materials

3.1 Location of the Study Area

3.2 Research design

3.3 Data collection

4. Results

4.2 Food unavailability experience of male and female-headed cocoa households

4.3 Sources of staple food among the male and female-headed households

5. Discussion

5.1 Gender of the household head and dietary diversity pattern distribution

5.2 Gender of the household head and food unavailability

5.3: Implications of sources of staple food on household dietary diversity status

5.4: Factors accounting for low dietary diversity in male and female-headed cocoa households

5.4.1: Climate change/ variability

5.4.2: Poverty/ Income

5.4.3: Unavailable lands

5.4.4: Large household size

5.4.5: Gender stereotypes/ beliefs

6. Conclusion and recommendations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1