This research aimed at the stabilization of clay, which is often prone to problems such as swelling and sliding. Indeed, the addition of glass and concrete waste to these clays can offer an ideal solution for their stabilization, by interestingly modifying their geotechnical properties. In the overall context of recycling and the development of the public works sector in Morocco, there is a significant demand for clay. The main objective of this study is the reuse of glass and concrete waste, combined with natural clay, in road construction. In addition to the adverse effects on the environment, the excessive exploitation of clay seriously threatens the supply of projects. Thus, the exploitation of new clay sources appears as a future solution. Indeed, different natural materials such as clay, marl, as well as recycled materials such as concrete and glass debris, are identified to form clay mixtures with varying proportions of glass and concrete (ranging from 30% glass and 30% concrete to 30% glass + 30% concrete). These mixtures undergo several series of mechanical tests, including Proctor compaction tests, CBR bearing capacity tests, and oedometer tests. The work also involves conducting oedometer tests on the natural clay used as a reference and on clay mixtures with crushed glass and concrete waste at different percentages. It was found that the addition of glass and concrete to clay reduces swelling and settlement indices, while modifying the intrinsic characteristics of clay. The obtained results are very interesting and open a wide range of possibilities for the reuse of the studied materials in the field of civil engineering in general, and specifically in road construction.
Research Article
Study of the behavior of clay mixtures for the treatment of glass and concrete waste in road construction
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3101092/v1
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Clay
Glass waste
Concrete waste
Proctor
Angerberg
Methylene blue
This work aims at the valorization of new local natural and industrial materials, specifically clay and glass waste, which are abundant in Morocco. The road network represents the most important asset and the main vein of a country's development [1]. Since antiquity, road construction has continuously evolved across different civilizations [2; 3]. However, it has always relied on natural materials, especially so-called noble materials such as sand and gravel [4]. Consequently, the excessive extraction of these materials, in addition to the adverse effects on the environment, is increasingly leading to the depletion of deposits, which seriously threatens the continuity of project supply [5]. Researchers have therefore sounded the alarm in search of new materials to meet aggregate needs [6]. Furthermore, several natural materials (shale, granite, marl, etc.) and recycled materials (concrete debris, glass debris, etc.) have been the subject of research in recent years for potential use in the road sector [7–9]. On the other hand, there is a need to dispose of certain materials considered as waste (glass and concrete) while taking into account environmental and economic factors [10]. In order to valorize these clay materials in road construction, we have considered in this study the preparation of mixtures of clay and glass debris at different proportions. Glass waste, clays, and concrete waste exist naturally as more or less homogeneous materials, but also in the form of mixtures (heterogeneous soils) or multiple layers (anisotropic soils) [11]. In this work, we have chosen to study clayey and glass materials [12]. Clay is a readily available material in Morocco, and glass debris is also among the most common products found in landfills [13; 14]. Glass is widely used (packaging, decoration, construction, etc.) and generates a significant amount of waste (fragile). On the other hand, it is an inert material with a lifespan exceeding 5000 years. The recycling of this material in the field of civil engineering has been the subject of several research studies for potential use in concrete [15–18] and public works [19–21]. In order to valorize these clayey and glass materials in road construction, we have considered in this study the preparation of mixtures of clay and glass debris at different proportions [22]. The reconstituted samples, after identification, are then subjected to laboratory road mechanical tests (Proctor tests, CBR, oedometer). The results obtained will be presented progressively in the following sections.
2.1 Clay soil
The clayey soil used in this study comes from the Ouazzane area (see Fig. 1). Sample collection was carried out using a hand shovel, aiming to achieve possible soil homogeneity for further investigation [23]. The sampling was performed at a depth of approximately 1.0 meter. After extraction, the soil was placed in plastic bags and transported to the laboratory for preparation and execution of geotechnical identification and characterization tests.
The different soil samples studied in this article are designated by the names of the localities from which they were collected. Surface examination shows that they differ in terms of color, aggregate dimensions, nature, and condition. Physico-chemical identification of these samples is necessary. Indeed, any soil material intended for construction purposes generally needs to consist of different elements with optimal gradation. These elements include gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
The studied materials represent the main clay sites in the Province of Ouazzane. They are sampled as blocks at a depth of 1 meter. The blocks of clay materials are carefully crushed and sieved in the laboratory to avoid influencing their mineralogical structure [24]. After identification, the samples are reconstituted in the laboratory according to the granular class (0/20) and subsequently subjected to various road mechanical tests, namely modified Proctor tests, CBR tests after immersion, and oedometer tests. The samples are prepared as mixtures with natural clay and crushed glass and concrete waste in the following proportions:
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Sample 1: Natural clay
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Sample 2: Mixture (natural clay + 30% glass waste)
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Sample 3: Mixture (natural clay + 30% concrete waste)
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Sample 4: Mixture (natural clay + 30% glass waste + 30% concrete waste)
5.1 Physico-chemical analyzes and geotechnical tests carried out
Identification tests were performed on the natural clay from Ouazzane according to Moroccan standards.
✓ Particle Size Distribution: The granulometry test is carried out on the granular fraction with a diameter (Ø) greater than 80µm. The studied samples are sieved under water flow after being immersed in water for 24 hours. The retained particles on each sieve are dried in an oven until a constant mass is reached. The weight of the retained particles on each sieve is then measured (NM 00.8.082) [25; 26].
✓ Atterberg Limits: The liquid limit is determined using the penetration method with a penetrometer (NM 13.1.012) [27]. The plastic limit is determined using the Casagrande's rolling method (NM 13.1.007) [28].
✓ Methylene Blue Value: The methylene blue value is determined by measuring the amount of methylene blue that can be adsorbed on the test sample through titration (NM 13.1.178) [29; 30].
✓ Moisture Content: The moisture content is determined by measuring the weight proportion of water contained in a sample (NM 13.1.152) [31].
5.1 Mechanical characteristics of clays
The mechanical behavior of materials is characterized by parameters that allow for estimating settlements, compressibility, or consolidation of soils. These parameters are obtained from geotechnical laboratory tests, including:
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Modified Proctor Compaction Test (NM.13.1.023) [32; 33]: This test is used to study the compactability of the mixtures and determine their mechanical characteristics at the optimum moisture content (Wopm) and maximum dry density (ρdOPM).
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CBR Test (California Bearing Ratio) (NM.13.1.128) [34; 35]: This test determines the ability of materials to withstand load (CBR value after immersion).
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Oedometer Test (NM.13.1.003) [35; 36]: This test evaluates the settlement and swelling behavior of the material over time. It also allows for the classification of soils in terms of their compressibility.
These tests were conducted at the Test Building laboratory in Kenitra, Morocco. The laboratory performed treatment tests on clays using different percentages of glass and concrete waste, including compaction tests, CBR tests after immersion, and oedometer tests.
The results of the samples prepared in the laboratory underwent several tests, including identification tests and mechanical tests. The obtained results will be presented progressively in the following sections.
6.1 Material identification tests.
The results obtained from the physical and chemical identification tests of the clay used provide the summarized characteristics presented in Fig. 2 and Table 1.
| Physico-chemical characteristics | Results |
|---|---|
| Percentage of lessthan 0.08 | 94 |
| Liquidity limit WL (%) | 63 |
| Plasticity limit WP (%) | 28 |
| Plasticity index IP | 35 |
| Consistency index IC | 0.94 |
| Methylene Blue ValueVBS (g/100g) | 7.2 |
| Density of grains\({{\rho }}_{\text{S}}\) | 2.65 |
| Wet density\({ {\rho }}_{\text{h}}\) | 2.10 |
| Dry density \({{\rho }}_{\text{d}}\) (g/cm3) | 1.61 |
| Classification (GMTR/LCPC) | A3/At |
Based on the physical and chemical identification tests, we can deduce that the tested material is a highly clayey material with a very high methylene blue value (VBS), indicating its high absorption capacity. This explains its highly plastic behavior.
6.1.1 Characterization of clays
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed using the Bruker D2 Phaser apparatus with a copper source. This technique is fundamental for studying crystalline materials. The general method involves directing X-rays onto the sample and detecting the intensity of the X-rays that are scattered in different orientations in space. The scattered X-rays interfere with each other, resulting in intensity maxima in certain directions, which is referred to as the "diffraction" phenomenon. The detected intensity is recorded as a function of the deviation angle 2θ (two-theta) of the X-ray beam. The resulting curve is called a "diffractogram". The process of X-ray diffraction by the material is interpreted using Bragg's law, which determines the directions in which the interference of the scattered rays is constructive (diffraction peaks) in Fig. 3 and Table 2. This law is expressed by the following equation:
With:
dhkl: Interplanar spacing expressed in Ångstroms (Å).
n: Integer corresponding to the order of reflection.
λ: Wavelength of the used radiation (nm) related to the nature of the anticathode.
θ: Diffraction angle (º).
The value of dhkl depends on the lattice parameter and the crystal lattice type. The general X-ray diffraction method does not apply to compounds that are poorly or non-crystalline.
| Pos. [2θ] | Height [cts] | FWHM Left [2θ] | d-spacing [Å] | Rel. Int. [%] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 12.382580 | 16.418370 | 0.472320 | 7.14835 | 2.80 |
| 19.782180 | 34.651350 | 0.314880 | 4.48804 | 5.91 |
| 20.881700 | 109.182400 | 0.157440 | 4.25414 | 18.62 |
| 26.655980 | 586.258500 | 0.157440 | 3.34426 | 100.00 |
| 27.992170 | 13.186290 | 0.472320 | 3.18759 | 2.25 |
| 29.441450 | 152.917800 | 0.098400 | 3.03390 | 26.08 |
| 34.968350 | 29.280770 | 0.551040 | 2.56601 | 4.99 |
| 36.019720 | 29.067210 | 0.236160 | 2.49348 | 4.96 |
| 36.604370 | 51.777770 | 0.118080 | 2.45499 | 8.83 |
| 39.505990 | 58.787180 | 0.196800 | 2.28111 | 10.03 |
| 40.351160 | 14.854520 | 0.236160 | 2.23526 | 2.53 |
| 42.464370 | 36.923010 | 0.157440 | 2.12879 | 6.30 |
| 43.233880 | 12.986000 | 0.236160 | 2.09267 | 2.22 |
| 45.893090 | 20.252730 | 0.236160 | 1.97741 | 3.45 |
| 47.598120 | 20.040370 | 0.236160 | 1.91048 | 3.42 |
| 48.535110 | 32.208170 | 0.196800 | 1.87577 | 5.49 |
| 50.149490 | 61.580130 | 0.118080 | 1.81910 | 10.50 |
| 55.068880 | 10.443980 | 0.472320 | 1.66768 | 1.78 |
| 59.951750 | 44.819760 | 0.196800 | 1.54300 | 7.65 |
| 60.657960 | 28.372760 | 0.078720 | 1.52672 | 4.84 |
| 62.136050 | 9.646403 | 0.944640 | 1.49390 | 1.65 |
| 64.120440 | 8.232581 | 0.236160 | 1.45238 | 1.40 |
| 67.736760 | 26.885710 | 0.118080 | 1.38338 | 4.59 |
| 68.315900 | 33.275710 | 0.275520 | 1.37305 | 5.68 |
| 73.522320 | 12.016910 | 0.472320 | 1.28816 | 2.05 |
| 75.775680 | 9.150107 | 0.314880 | 1.25536 | 1.56 |
| 77.796390 | 7.822402 | 0.236160 | 1.22773 | 1.33 |
| 79.998500 | 8.540581 | 0.472320 | 1.19938 | 1.46 |
| 81.538860 | 12.154460 | 0.314880 | 1.18058 | 2.07 |
| 83.831460 | 11.477180 | 0.236160 | 1.15403 | 1.96 |
Figure 3 shows the obtained diffractogram for the fraction below 2µm, mainly composed of clay minerals. The characteristic peaks of magnetite (Fe12O16) are predominantly observed. Other peaks characteristic of moganite (Si12O24), Tilleyite (Ca20Si18C8O52), traces of quartz (SiO2), and calcite (Ca6C6O18) are also present. Therefore, the material consists of five phases.
6.1.2 Infrared spectroscopy (IR)
Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra were obtained using a Perkin Elmer instrument controlled by a computer. The measurements were performed using a Spectrum One apparatus in the wavelength range of 400 cm-1 to 4000 cm-1, with a spectral resolution of 4.0 cm-1. Pellets were prepared by mixing 1 mg of the sample with 100 mg of potassium bromide (KBr) under a pressure of a few bars in Fig. 4 and Table 3.
| Spectrum (A) | Spectrum (B) | Spectrum (C) | Spectrum (D) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Les bandes cm− 1 | Interpretations | Les bandes cm− 1 | Interpretations | Les bandes cm− 1 | Interpretations | Les bandes cm− 1 | Interpretations |
| 3620.80 | (O-H) | 3427.93 | (N-H) | 2349.11 | (N-H) (Ammonium ions) | 3427.93 | (N-H) |
| 1738.95 | (C = O) | 2347.68 | (C-H) | 1636.09 | (C = C) | 2349.11 | (N-H) (Ammonium ions) |
| 1431.74 | (C-H) | 1593.22 | (N-H) | 1414.61 | (O-H) | 1413.18 | (O-H) |
| 995.93 | (C-C) | 1456.05 | (N = N) | 1000.23 | (C-F) | 1000.23 | (C-F) |
| 693.01 | (C-Br) | 1000.23 | (C-F) | 778.75 | (C-Cl) | 778.75 | (C-Cl) |
According to the infrared spectrum of the clay mixture with glass and concrete waste illustrated in the figure, we can observe the presence of two characteristic absorption bands located between 3200–3800 cm− 1 and between 1600–1700 cm− 1.
Spectrum (A):
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OH group vibrations of the octahedral layer at (3620.80 cm-1)
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Characteristic band for the stretching vibrations of the ester molecule C = O located at 1738.95 cm-1
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Characteristic band for the stretching vibrations of the tetragonal molecule Ctet-H located at 1431.74 cm-1
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Intense band corresponding to the valence vibrations of the C-Br bond (located between 500–750 cm-1and centered at 693.01 cm-1)
Spectrum (B):
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Valence group vibrations of the N-H bond in the amine molecule (located between 3300–3500 cm-1and centered at 3427.93 cm-1)
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Band observed at 2347.68 cm-1, attributed to the stretching vibrations of the (C-H) bonds
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Band at 1593.22 cm-1characteristic of the deformation vibrations of the amine or amide bonds (N-H)
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Characteristic band for the stretching vibrations of N = N located at 1456.05 cm-1
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Intense band corresponding to the valence vibrations of the C-F bond (located between 1000–1040 cm-1and centered at 1000.23 cm-1)
Spectrum (C):
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Valence vibrations of the N-H bond in ammonium ion molecules at 2349.11 cm-1
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Band at 1636.09 cm-1characteristic of the stretching vibrations of the (C = C) bonds
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Characteristic band for the O-H deformation vibrations of water molecules located at 1414.61 cm-1
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Intense band corresponding to the valence vibrations of the C-F bond (located between 1000–1040 cm-1and centered at 1000.23 cm-1)
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Intense band located between 600–800 cm-1and centered at 778.75 cm-1corresponds to the valence vibrations of the C-Cl bond
Spectrum (D):
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Valence group vibrations of the N-H bond in the amine molecule (located between 3300–3500 cm-1and centered at 3427.93 cm-1)
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Valence vibrations of the N-H bond in ammonium ion molecules at 2349.11 cm-1
-
Characteristic band for the O-H deformation vibrations of water molecules located at 1413.18 cm-1
-
Intense band corresponding to the valence vibrations of the C-F bond (located between 1000–1040 cm-1and centered at 1000.23 cm-1)
-
Intense band located between 600–800 cm-1and centered at 778.75 cm-1corresponds to the valence vibrations of the C-Cl bond.
6.2 Mechanical behavior study
The study of the mechanical behavior of the materials under investigation focused on the Modified Proctor compaction tests, CBR (California Bearing Ratio) tests after immersion, and oedometer compression tests [41]. These tests provide insights into the mechanical response of the different materials under various types of loading conditions typically encountered in real-scale situations, such as road traffic [42].
6.2.1 Compact testing at the modified Proctor
Modified Proctor compaction tests can be conducted on mixtures of natural soils and recycled materials such as glass waste or crushed concrete waste. These mixtures need to be prepared with specific proportions based on the requirements of the intended application. When glass waste or crushed concrete waste is added to the soil, it can alter the physical properties of the mixture, such as density, plasticity, and permeability. Therefore, it is important to perform Modified Proctor compaction tests to determine the characteristics of this new mixture and ensure its suitability for the intended use.
The procedures and measurement methods for conducting these tests are the same as those for natural soils. The standard NM 13.1023 establishes quality criteria for soil-waste mixtures, including the proportions to be used and the target values for maximum density and optimum moisture content. This ensures that the mixtures meet quality standards and are suitable for the intended use in Fig. 5.
The evolution of the maximum dry density and the optimal water content of natural clays as a function of the glass content and concrete is presented with more precision in Fig. 6.
The results of the compaction study for the different mixtures can vary depending on the percentages of glass waste and concrete waste added to the natural clay.
Compaction of the mixtures of natural clay, glass waste, and concrete waste is an important step in the process of manufacturing sustainable construction materials. Compaction involves applying pressure to the mixture to reduce its volume and increase its density.
Compaction of the mixtures of natural clay, glass waste, and concrete waste can be performed using a roller press or a hydraulic press. The compaction should be done uniformly to ensure a consistent density of the mixture. The amount of pressure applied during compaction depends on the composition of the mixture and the desired density. Generally, a mixture containing a higher amount of concrete waste will require more pressure to achieve a uniform density.
It is important to note that excessive compaction can lead to the breaking of clay particles, which can negatively affect the mechanical properties of the final material. Therefore, it is important to strike a balance between the desired density and the preservation of the clay particle structure.
Based on the results of the Modified Proctor test, it is observed that the addition of a fraction of concrete waste or glass waste increases the dry density of the soil in place and reduces its water sensitivity due to treatment. However, the optimum water content decreases with increasing glass content. The CBR test will provide a clearer assessment of the load-bearing capacity of the material after treatment with glass waste or concrete waste and evaluate the technical effectiveness of the treatment.
6.2.2 CBR lift tests after immersion
The CBR tests conducted after immersion (CBRimm) allow for the study of the load-bearing capacity of the mixtures under the worst hygrometric conditions. The specimens, after immersion, are punched on a motorized CBR press with a maximum punching force of 50 kN. The results obtained are presented in Fig. 7.
The addition of glass waste and concrete waste significantly reduces the CBR index of the mixture (clay + glass waste + concrete waste).
The results of the CBR load-bearing tests conducted before immersion, as presented in Fig. 8, indicate that the load-bearing capacity of the studied material increases after treatment with crushed concrete or glass waste. The mixture of clay + 30% glass waste + 30% concrete waste represents the sample with the highest CBR index. However, treatment with crushed concrete yields very similar results. Therefore, a techno-economic study considering the availability of concrete waste would help determine the optimal treatment to increase the load-bearing capacity of this type of soil.
6.2.3 Eedometer compressibility tests
The Odumeter Tests Shown in Fig. 8 are conducted using an appaped with a 5cm diameter eedumeter cell. These tests Allow for the Evaluation of the Mechanical Behavior of the Studied Materials in Terms of Compressibility and Swelling Under Loading Cycles (3400 KPA) and Unloading, Respectively.
The oedometer tests are typically suitable for fine-grained soils due to the practically incompressible structure of coarse-grained materials (glass waste and concrete waste). Based on the results of this test, we can deduce that treating this soil with either glass waste or concrete waste helps reduce the compressibility index and swelling index of the soil. This confirms the findings from the CBR test, where the water insensitivity increases and the clay's bearing capacity improves due to a decrease in the void ratio.Based on the results of the identification tests, modified Proctor, CBR, and oedometer tests, we can declare that the treatment with concrete waste remains the best choice from both technical and economic perspectives. However, it is important to ensure the availability of concrete waste to ensure the sustainability of the treatment, considering the abundance of this type of material.
This study aims to find economical and ecological solutions through research on the mechanical behavior of materials in mixtures (clay + glass and concrete waste) subjected to road loadings. The obtained results have shown that the mixture composed of natural clay with 30% glass waste and 30% concrete waste exhibits very interesting behavior under various stresses and can be proposed as a material for roads, at least for low to medium traffic pavements. This approach is primarily focused on the valorization of new sources of clays from local natural materials (clay) and recycled materials (glass and concrete waste), which are readily available and accessible.
Furthermore, in order to extend the use of these materials to medium to high traffic pavements, this research work can be of significant interest in road geotechnics, both from an economic and an ecological/environmental standpoint. It can also contribute to innovation in the field of material recycling, which is a sector open to new ideas. However, it would require the implementation of an information program on the establishment of selective landfills allowing for easy collection of glass and concrete waste, in order to anticipate the necessary steps for facilitating this utilization.
Data availability statement
All data generated or analyzed during this study are provided in full within the published article.
Declaration of Interest
The authors of this manuscript report that there are no conflicts of interest relevant to this research work.
Funding Statement
There is not funding to report for this submission.
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No competing interests reported.