Ogiek livelihoods and honey production
TABLE 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of the interviewees
Number of beekeepers
|
30
|
Place of residence
|
Mariashoni
|
Ndoswa
|
Kiptunga
|
Songwi
|
12
|
8
|
7
|
3
|
Gender
|
Males
|
Females
|
26
|
4
|
Age range
|
30 – 39
|
40 – 49
|
50 +
|
9
|
5
|
16
|
Main economic activities
|
Beekeeping
|
Agriculture
|
Livestock husbandry
|
Formal employment
|
30
|
30
|
30
|
5
|
Total number of beehives*
|
Traditional log hives
|
Modern hives
|
~ 500
|
~ 250
|
Individual hives**
|
Traditional log hives
|
Modern hives
|
26
|
12
|
Collectives hives**
|
Traditional log hives
|
Modern hives
|
19
|
30
|
* We estimate the total number of beehives owned by the beekeepers drawing from the interviews,.
** Number of beekeepers individually owning log and modern hives
*** Number of beekeepers collectively owning log and modern hives through membership to self-help groups
Characteristics of the interviewees
Table 2 presents the socio-economic and demographic profiles of the beekeepers interviewed. Their ages range from 30 to 71 years old with an average age of 48.6; 26 were men and 4 were women. They live in the area surrounding Mariashoni (n. 12) and in the localities of Ndoswa (n. 8), Kiptunga (n. 7), and Songwi (n. 3). Besides beekeeping, all the interviewees carried out farming activities and livestock rearing both for household consumption and for the market. Five were also employed by the government and local NGOs.
Beehives, ownership, and beekeeping systems
An extensive beekeeping system based on traditional log hives and an intensive one based on modern beehives (KTBH and Langstroth) coexist and intersect in Ogiek livelihoods. Three main types of beehives are used in the study area: 1) Log hives, which are made from hardwood trees and have fixed combs as in a wild colony; 2) Langstroth hives, which are the typical Western-style hive with movable frames; and 3) Kenyan top-bar (KTB) hives, which employ movable top bars rather than frames (FIG. 1). Modern and traditional hives are not used interchangeably but rather their use depends on several variables such as differential accessibility to hives and/or the material and skills to build them, intended ecological location, primary purpose (e.g. home-consumption, income generation), and social and cultural aspects (e.g. attachment to Ogiek cultural identity, food and medicinal properties of honey, etc.). Another important difference between log hives and modern hives relates to how they are obtained. While log hives are built by Ogiek beekeepers themselves on the basis of their traditional knowledge, most modern hives are gifted pre-made by NGOs and other organizations, involving little knowledge and skill on the side of beekeepers.
As shown in Table 1, beekeepers use both modern and traditional hives that can be owned individually or collectively by self-help groups. Some 70-75% of the total hives are traditional log hives, but their relative presence has been decreasing in favour of modern beehives in the last few years. Twenty-six beekeepers own individual log hives, inherited or built by themselves, while only 12 have individually-owned modern hives, usually purchased from the market. In contrast, all the beekeepers collectively own modern hives that were gifted to the self-help groups by Necofa and other NGOs involved in the MACODEV CBO project. Nineteen beekeepers also have collective log hives that were either donated by members or purchased with the funds of the group.
Only four interviewees were women, and all of them owned beehives through the self-help groups to which each belongs, rather than individually. Beekeeping among the Ogiek remains a male-dominated activity, with some interviewees explaining that ‘women could not take part in honey harvesting due to the effort needed to climb the trees and reach the hives’ as well as for the fact that ‘they could not withstand the stings of bees like men.’ Nonetheless, the introduction of modern hives has facilitated women’s involvement in apiculture. Since modern hives are usually placed close to the ground and near the homestead, women can harvest and sell honey to the MACODEV cooperative through the group to which they belong.
Honey bee species
Ogiek beekeepers distinguish two ‘kinds of bees’ colonizing their hives, namely ‘brown bees’ and ‘black bees’, which correspond respectively to Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier (the East African lowland honey bee) and Apis mellifera monticola Smith (the East African mountain honey bee) [64]. The former bees are described as having a brownish colour and being aggressive, while the latter as black and displaying ‘polite behaviour.’ Brown bees are reported to be by far more common and more productive, while the honey from black bees is regarded as better quality. No differences in the management of black and brown bees were reported in the interviews.
Emic classification and vertical zoning
A customary emic classification of the forest in association with beekeeping emerges from the interviews. It includes three main zones that the beekeepers distinguish on the basis of altitude and vegetation type: Lower Forest (2,300-2,600 m), Central Forest (2,600-2,800 m), and Upper Forest (2,800-3,000 m). The main distinction is drawn between the Upper and Lower Forest, while the Central Forest is regarded more as a transition zone with features of the other two. While in the Upper Forest and to a lesser extent in the Central Forest beekeeping is tied to the presence of autochthonous species, in the Lower Forest the actual forest coverage has been largely replaced by exotic tree plantations and plots of cultivated land. Hence, what the Ogiek have traditionally called the Lower Forest is actually no longer a forest and the landscape is one of an agricultural frontier.
In the upper zone, beekeepers recognize a great diversity of trees and shrubs used in beekeeping. The species most often mentioned include Nuxia congesta R.Br. ex Fresen. Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.) Bamps, Podocarpus latifolius (Thunb.) R.Br. ex Mirb, and Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. On the edges of the Upper Forest, Yushania alpina (K.Schum.) W.C.Lin, Micromeria imbricata (Forssk.) C.Chr, Trifolium burchellianum Ser., Lobelia bambuseti R.E.Fr. & T.C.E.Fr., Helichrysum argyranthum O.Hoffm, and Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze are the most common species.
The density and diversity of autochthonous species decrease with lower altitudes. In the cultivated lowlands, maize, bean, potato, sunflower, Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill., Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br., and Cupressus lusitanica Mill., all exotic and/or cultivated species, are the most valuable for beekeeping. However, interviewees also mentioned some forest species like Dombeya torrida, Nuxia congesta, Trifolium burchellianum, Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br., and Polyscias kikuyuensis Summerh., as individuals of these species still stand in the remaining patches of riverside forest and in the hedges of cultivated fields.
Diversity of species and parts used in beekeeping
TABLE 3. Plant species mentioned by the interviewees as used for beekeeping purposes (in alphabetical order of botanical name)
Botanical name
(Voucher specimen code)
|
Family
|
Recorded folk name(s)*
|
Growth Habit**
|
Part(s) mentioned
|
Use(s)
|
Frequency of citation***
|
Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Medik.
(DMZ2020/001)
|
Malvaceae
|
Goldoiywet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Achyranthes aspera L.
(DMZ2020/002)
|
Amaranthaceae
|
Sarurieet ap tisieet (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Alchemilla sp.
(DMZ2020/003)
|
Rosaceae
|
Nyaek (O)****
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk.
(DMZ2020/004)
|
Sapindaceae
|
Gipkosoriet / Maraisit (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+++
|
Baccharoides lasiopus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob
(DMZ2020/005)
|
Asteraceae
|
Seregutiet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Brassica oleracea L.
(DMZ2020/006)
|
Brassicaceae
|
Mboga (S) / Cabbage (E)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (bees drink water from the leaves)
|
+
|
Brassica oleracea var. viridis L.
(DMZ2020/007)
|
Brassicaceae
|
Sukuma wiki (S)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Brassica rapa L.
(DMZ2020/008)
|
Brassicaceae
|
Mulo (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Carduus nyassanus subsp. kikuyorum (R.E.Fr.) C. Jeffrey
(DMZ2020/009)
|
Asteraceae
|
Tegweyot (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Carduus schimperi Sch. Bip
(DMZ2020/010)
|
Asteraceae
|
Tegweyot (O) /
Nyaek (O) ****
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
++
|
Clematis simensis Fresen.
(DMZ2020/011)
|
Ranunculaceae
|
Pisinda (O)
|
CS
|
Bark
|
Ropes (ropes made from the woven fibres are used to fix the bark stripes around the log hives)
|
+
|
Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach
(DMZ2020/012)
|
Peraceae
|
Kiparnyat (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don
(DMZ2020/013)
|
Combretaceae
|
Kemeliet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight; mostly in the lowlands)
|
+
|
Crassocephalum montuosum (S.Moore) Milne-Redh
(DMZ2020/014)
|
Asteraceae
|
Musumioit (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Cupressus lusitanica Mill.
(DMZ2020/015)
|
Cupressaceae
|
Cypress (E)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (timber used mostly for modern beehives)
|
+++
|
Cyathula cylindrica Moq.
(DMZ2020/016)
|
Amaranthaceae
|
Mutumiat (O)
|
CS
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.) Bamps
(DMZ2020/017)
|
Malvaceae
|
Silibwet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (considered the best source of nectar, producing the most valued honey)
|
+++++
|
Branches
|
Smoking hives (smoke from burning branches is blown inside the log hive to stun the bees before extracting the honeycomb)
|
+
|
Attracting bees (branches are burnt inside the modern hives)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive)
|
+
|
Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb.
(DMZ2020/018)
|
Salicaceae
|
Nukiat / Kigorwet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill.
(DMZ2020/019)
|
Myrtaceae
|
Eucalyptus / Blue gum (E)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++++
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (timber used for modern beehives)
|
+
|
Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br.
(DMZ2020/020)
|
Proteaceae
|
Gravelia (E)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (timber used mostly for modern beehives)
|
+
|
Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce ex Steud.) J.F.Gmel
(DMZ2020/021)
|
Rosaceae
|
Pontet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
++
|
Helianthus annuus L.
(DMZ2020/022)
|
Asteraceae
|
Sunflower (E)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Helichrysum argyranthum O.Hoffm
(DMZ2020/023)
|
Asteraceae
|
Karabwet (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+++
|
Hymenophyllum sp.
(DMZ2020/024)
|
Hymenophyllaceae
|
Susuot (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Leaves
|
Harvesting tools (to clean hands and the leather bag after harvesting the honey)
|
++
|
Harvesting tools (to cover the hole in the centre of the log hive from which honey is harvested)
|
+
|
Hypoestes verticillaris (L.f.) Sol. ex Roem. & Schult.
(DMZ2020/025)
|
Acanthaceae
|
Nerubat netui (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
++
|
Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk.
(DMZ2020/026)
|
Aquifoliaceae
|
Tongotwet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Making hives
(the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive)
|
+
|
Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC
(DMZ2020/027)
|
Oleaceae
|
Mogoiywet (O)
|
CS
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight; mostly in lowlands)
|
+
|
Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl.
(DMZ2020/028)
|
Cupressaceae
|
Torokuet (O)
|
T
|
Bark
|
Covering hives (before hanging the log hive on tree, it is covered with bark stripes)
|
+++
|
Attracting bees (pieces of dry bark are burnt inside modern hives)
|
+
|
Smoking hives (to smoke traditional log hives along with Usnea sp. before extracting the honeycomb)
|
+++
|
Branches
|
Storing honey (in the past honey was stored in a hollowed log of Juniperus procera placed one to few metres above the ground over a wooden frame in the forest)
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
++
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive; considered the best option for log hives)
|
++++
|
Kniphofia thomsonii Baker
(DMZ2020/029)
|
Xanthorrhoeaceae
|
Yamyamt (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
++
|
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br.
(DMZ2020/030)
|
Lamiaceae
|
Mosipichiet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Lobelia bambuseti R.E.Fr. & T.C.E.Fr.
(DMZ2020/031)
|
Campanulaceae
|
Kabosuet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+++
|
Lobelia giberroa Hemsl.
(DMZ2020/032)
|
Campanulaceae
|
Tangaratwet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze
(DMZ2020/033)
|
Asteraceae
|
Komereriet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Bark
|
Ropes
(dry fibres are used to tie the two halves of the log hive)
|
+
|
Storing honey (dry fibres of Microglossa pyrifolia and Yushania alpina are interwoven to make a bag where to store honey)
|
+
|
Micromeria imbricata (Forssk.) C.Chr
(DMZ2020/034)
|
Lamiaceae
|
Chepsagitiet (O)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (source of pollen)
|
+
|
Mikaniopsis bambuseti (R.E.Fr.) C.Jeffrey
(DMZ2020/035)
|
Asteraceae
|
Sereret (O)
|
CS
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Branches
|
Harvesting (beekeepers use the branches of the tree to climb the tree where the loghive is placed)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight; mostly in lowlands)
|
+
|
Mimulopsis alpina Chiov.
(DMZ2020/036)
|
Acanthaceae
|
Sosonet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (flowering takes places every 10-12 years; when it happens, no circumcision ceremonies are held as it is a considered a bad omen)
|
++
|
Musa × paradisiaca L.
(DMZ2020/037)
|
Musaceae
|
Ndizi (S) / Banana (E)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Leaves
|
Covering hives (dry leaves are used to cover the traditional log hive before hanging it on trees)
|
+
|
Storing honey (leaves used to make a basket used to transport and store honey)
|
+
|
Nuxia congesta R.Br. ex Fresen.
(DMZ2020/038)
|
Stilbaceae
|
Choruet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (bees feed on it mainly during the rainy seasons)
|
+++
|
Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa (C.H.Wright) I.Verd.
(DMZ2020/039)
|
Oleaceae
|
Masaita (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive; highly valued to build log hive)
|
+
|
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don) Cif
(DMZ2020/040)
|
Oleaceae
|
Emitiot / Yemitioot (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Oxalis corniculata L.
(DMZ2020/041)
|
Oxalidaceae
|
Nyaek****
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Phaseolus vulgaris L.
(DMZ2020/042)
|
Fabaceae
|
Maragwe (S) / Bean (E)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Pinus patula Schltdl. & Cham.
(DMZ2020/043)
|
Pinaceae
|
Pine (E)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (timber used mostly for modern beehives)
|
++
|
Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims
(DMZ2020/044)
|
Pittosporaceae
|
Toponit (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive;highly valued to build log hive )
|
+
|
Plagiochila sp.
(DMZ2020/045)
|
Plagiochilaceae
|
Susuot (O)
|
Tr
|
Leaves
|
Harvesting tools (to clean hands and the leather bag after harvesting the honey)
|
++
|
Harvesting tools (to cover the hole in the centre of the log hive from which honey is harvested)
|
+
|
Plectranthus sp.
(DMZ2020/046)
|
Lamiaceae
|
Korpisiot (O)
|
H
|
Leaves
|
Harvesting tools (to clean hands and clothes after harvesting the honey)
|
+
|
Podocarpus latifolius (Thunb.) R.Br. ex Mirb
(DMZ2020/047)
|
Podocarpaceae
|
Saptet (O)
|
T
|
Bark
|
Covering the hive (before hanging the log hive on trees, it is covered with bark stripes)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
++
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive; highly valued to build log hive )
|
++
|
Polyscias kikuyuensis Summerh.
(DMZ2020/048)
|
Araliaceae
|
Ounet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive;highly valued to build log hive ; softwood)
|
++
|
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman
(DMZ2020/049)
|
Rosaceae
|
Tenduet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Bark
|
Covering hives (before hanging the log hive on trees, it is covered with bark stripes)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
++
|
Making hives (the trunk is split in two longitudinally and used to build the log hive; highly valued to build log hive)
|
+
|
Prunus sp.
(DMZ2020/050)
|
Rosaceae
|
Plum tree (E)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) Mez
(DMZ2020/051)
|
Primulaceae
|
Korapariat (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
(source of pollen)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & Drumm.
(DMZ2020/052)
|
Vitaceae
|
Ingirenyit (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Rubus pinnatus Willd.
(DMZ2020/053)
|
Rosaceae
|
Chepseonik (O)
|
S/CS
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Rubus steudneri Schweinf.
(DMZ2020/054)
|
Rosaceae
|
Taktakuet (O)
|
CS
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Schefflera volkensii (Harms) Harms
(DMZ2020/055)
|
Araliaceae
|
Chelumbut (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (log hives are placed at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to hold their weight)
|
+
|
Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz
(DMZ2020/056)
|
Rhamnaceae
|
Simbeywet (O)
|
CS/T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+++
|
Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley
(DMZ2020/057)
|
Anacardiaceae
|
Sirondit (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Placing hives (modern and log hives are placed under this shrub’s canopy)
|
+
|
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
(DMZ2020/058)
|
Fabaceae
|
Senetuet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Solanum nigrum L.
(DMZ2020/059)
|
Solanaceae
|
Managu (S)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Solanum tuberosum L.
(DMZ2020/060)
|
Solanaceae
|
Viazi (S) / Potato (E)
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss
(DMZ2020/061)
|
Myrtaceae
|
Lamaywet (O)
|
T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
+
|
Trifolium burchellianum Ser.
(DMZ2020/062)
|
Fabaceae
|
Dabibit / Puputiet / Nyaek (O)****
|
H
|
Flower
|
Melliferous (bees make propolis from it)
|
++
|
Usnea sp.
(DMZ2020/063)
|
Parmeliaceae
|
Kurongurik (O)
|
L
|
Leaves
|
Smoking hives (dry lichens are burnt with the bark of Juniperus procera before harvesting the honeycomb)
|
+++
|
Attracting bees (dry lichens are burnt inside modern hives)
|
+
|
Vernonia auriculifera Hiern
(DMZ2020/064)
|
Asteraceae
|
Tepengwet (O)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Branches
|
Smoking hives (smoke from burning branches is blown inside the log hive to stun the bees before extracting the honeycomb)
|
+
|
Yushania alpina (K.Schum.) W.C.Lin
(DMZ2020/065)
|
Poaceae
|
Teegat (O)
|
S/T
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++
|
Leaves
|
Harvesting tools (to cover the hole in the centre of the log hive from which the honey is harvested)
|
+
|
Branches
|
Smoking hives (dry branches are cut into small pieces and mixed with the branches of Dombeya torrida before harvesting the honeycomb)
|
+
|
Trunk
|
Storing honey (mature trunks are cut and one side is covered with cow or sheep skin; the resulting container is used to transport and store honey)
|
++
|
Zea mays L.
(DMZ2020/066)
|
Poaceae
|
Maindi (S) / Maize (E)
|
S
|
Flower
|
Melliferous
|
++++
|
For each species, we report the botanical name, botanical family, local plant name, growth habit, part(s) used, use in beekeeping, and relevance (calculated based on the number of mentions by the interviewees).
* Recorded folk name(s): Ogiek, O; Swahili, S; English, E
** Growth habit: T, tree; Tr, Tree Trunk; S, shrub; S/CS, Shrubs / Climbing Species; S/T Shrubs / Tree; H, herb; L, lichen; EH, epiphytic herb; CS, climbing species; CS/T, Climbing Species / Tree.
*** Frequency of citation: +++++: mentioned by 70% of the informants or more; ++++: mentioned by 50% to 70% of the informants; +++: mentioned by 30% to 50% informants ++: mentioned by 10% to 30% of the informants; +: mentioned by less than 10% informants
**** Nyaek is a collective name of several herbaceous species used as a source of nectar and pollen by bees
The plant species mentioned in the interviews and used by the Ogiek for beekeeping purposes are listed in Table 3 in alphabetical order of botanical name. In total, 66 species (65 plants and 1 lichen) were recorded during the interviews. The species are distributed across 36 botanical families representing 58 genera. Asteraceae and Rosaceae are the most represented plant families with 9 and 6 species, respectively, largely reported as melliferous. Fabaceae, Brassicaceae, Lamiaceae and Oleaceae are represented by 3 species each, while the remaining plant families by only one or two species. Trees are the most mentioned category of growth habit (32%), followed by shrubs (28%), herbs (23%), and climbing species (9%) (FIG. 3).
Regarding the plant parts most important for beekeeping purposes, flowers represent 60% of the total, followed by trunk (22%), leaves (7%), bark (6%), and branches (5%). The relative predominance of flowers reflects the fact that most of the species mentioned are melliferous plants used by bees as sources of nectar and pollen.
As shown in FIG. 4, we identified nine different uses for the plant species mentioned, grouped into six main use categories, namely melliferous, making hives, placing hives, attracting bees, harvesting honey, and storing honey. Twenty-seven species mentioned in the interviews have more than one use in beekeeping: 15 species have two uses, eight have three uses, three have four uses, while one species, Juniperus procera, has six different uses. Overall, trees have a greater diversity of use, as they provide pollen and nectar for bees and also materials for hive construction. The interviewees reported that for 12 species the same part of the plant is used for more than one purpose.
Melliferous species
Of the 66 species listed, more than 85% are melliferous, i.e. source of nectar (n. 50) or pollen (n. 7) for bees. Beekeepers distinguish between species used as a source of nectar or pollen by observing the behaviour of bees. In the latter case, ‘bees feed on the flower of these species but they do not produce honey.’
Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, Poaceae, Asteraceae, Rhamnaceae, Sapindaceae and Stilbaceae are the most mentioned families. Overall, the most salient melliferous species is Dombeya torrida, as 86.6% of the beekeepers regarded its flowers as the best source of nectar in all the ecological zones. Bees feeding on it produce large amounts of honey that can be distinguished by its whitish colour and very sweet taste. Because of the long flowering period of the species, spanning from August to December [57, 62], D. torrida honey is valued as the main monofloral honey harvested in the area. On the other hand, about 30% of the interviewees mentioned Carduus schimperi Sch. Bip, Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don, Hypoestes verticillaris (L.f.) Sol. ex Roem. & Schult, and Kniphofia thomsonii Baker as the most important species for pollen production.
The relative importance of melliferous species varies with the location of the beehives. In the Upper Forest, besides D. torrida, trees such as Nuxia congesta, Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk., and Ilex mitis are the most mentioned. The importance attributed to these species stems from their central role in Ogiek ethnobotany. For instance, timber from Ilex mitis is used for the construction of traditional log hives and some species (e.g. Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk. and Nuxia congesta) are also used for medicinal purposes as well as for cultural celebrations and traditional ceremonies [see also 30, 65]. In the cultivated lowlands, beekeepers instead highlighted the melliferous importance of blue gum (Eucalyptus grandis) and maize among exotic species and crops, while Vernonia auriculifera Hiern, Baccharoides lasiopus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob, Achyranthes aspera L., and Leonotis nepetifolia were reported as the most valuable autochthonous species. These species are also abundant in disturbed areas in the Upper Forest [59].
Making hives
Nineteen species provide sources of raw material for building hives. In particular, the Ogiek use timber from 12 tree species to build the structure of log hives (n. 8) and modern hives (n. 4), bark from 5 species to cover log hives before placing them on trees, and fibres from one vine and one shrub are used as rope to tie together the two halves of the log hive and to affix the bark strips around it. The species most frequently used for hive making are Juniperus procera (50% to 70% interviewees), Polyscias kikuyuensis (10% to 30% interviewees), and Podocarpus latifolius (10% to 30% interviewees), whereas Cupressus lusitanica (30% to 50% interviewees) and Pinus patula Schltdl. & Cham. (10% to 30% interviewees) are the most common trees used to build modern beehives.
Traditionally, the process of log hive construction begins with a fallen tree, of the right species (i.e. Juniperus procera), size, and condition of decomposition (i.e. some decomposition facilitates working the trunk, while too much would endanger the hive’s resistance over time). Beekeepers split the trunk in two longitudinally, remove the bark and outer layers of wood, and use the inner wood (reddish in colour) to build the hive. They hollow out the log with a smoother and leave the split hollow trunk to dry for at least two weeks. Subsequent steps involve tying the two halves together with a rope (sagoet) obtained from dry fibres of Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze and closing the two ends, leaving a small entrance for the bees at one end. Before hanging the hive, beekeepers cover it with bark strips that are then affixed to the hive with a cord made from the woven fibres of Clematis brachiata Thunb. Bark is mostly harvested from mature Juniperus procera trees, removing only small portions so as not to damage the trees. The majority of the beekeepers agree that hives made from J. procera are particularly resistant (lasting up to ten years if managed properly) and warmer inside (with higher insulation capacity) compared to hives made from other trees, thus favouring bee occupation and persistence. However, the availability of fallen trees of this species has decreased in the last few decades due to forest logging and the replacement of autochthonous trees with exotic ones. Consequently, several beekeepers are replacing J. procera with softwood trees such as Polyscias kikuyuensis, Podocarpus latifolius and Prunus africana. In the cultivated lowlands, where the density of autochthonous trees is low, some beekeepers (less than 10%) have replaced the former with exotic trees such as Grevillea robusta for the body of the hive, and dry leaves of banana trees to cover the log hive.
The construction of modern hives involves different practices, techniques and raw materials. Firstly, modern hives are built with timber from fresh cut exotic species such as Cupressus lusitanica, Pinus patula, and, to a lesser extent, Grevillea robusta. According to Caroll [66], these are the most used and suitable timbers for the construction of modern beehives, especially KTB hives. However, the majority of the interviewees did not consider these trees, especially the timber of C. lusitanica, as the most appropriate for this purpose since timber from this species retains the cold and humidity inside the hive (more so when the timber is not dried properly), thus affecting bees’ activity and honey production. Also, as stated by one beekeeper, “bees are not used to these trees and do not feed on them [i.e. they are not a good source of nectar], they do not like their scent.” Some beekeepers using modern hives suggested addressing this problem either by building modern hives using autochthonous softwood species such as Polyscias kikuyuensis, Podocarpus latifolius and Prunus africana, or by covering the inner surface of modern hives with wooden panels from Juniperus procera.
Modern hives are covered with an iron sheet, a practice that has also been used for log hives. During some training sessions, one expert from a local agricultural college suggested this solution to beekeepers in order to cope with the scarce availability of bark from autochthonous trees. Those who tried it soon noticed a problem: the sound of the wind and the rain pounding against the sheet ‘scare’ the bees and induce them to abandon the hive.
Placing hives and setting apiaries
Beekeepers mentioned 14 plant species (13 associated with the Upper Forest) used to hang log hives. They included 10 trees, one shrub and two vines, with Juniperus procera, Podocarpus latifolius, Prunus africana, and Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce ex Steud.) J.F.Gmel being the preferred species. As discussed above, these species are also the ones most mentioned as melliferous and as sources of timber and bark for hive construction, and are thus characterized by their multiple uses (6 different uses for Juniperus procera and 3 uses for Prunus africana, Podocarpus latifolius, and Hagenia abyssinica). The degree of importance and availability of the tree species decrease with their decreasing density and changing ecologies from the upper to the lower areas. Thus, in the cultivated lowlands, beekeepers rely on species such as Mikaniopsis bambuseti (R.E.Fr.) C.Jeffrey, Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don and Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC to hang their hives.
Because much of the spatial differentiation in the Mau landscape is vertical, with the agricultural frontier pushing into the forest from lower to higher altitudes, log hives predominate over modern hives at higher altitudes, and vice versa. In the Upper Forest, log hives are usually placed at a height of 5-10 metres above the ground at the bifurcation of two branches strong enough to support their weight (FIG. 5). Other selection criteria include the density of branches (few branches make it difficult to climb the tree, whereas numerous branches expose the hives to raids by honey badgers and safari ants) and exposure to wind (hives are placed with the entrance facing downwind to avoid the cold and the sound of the wind beating against the hive). The density of melliferous species and distance to sources of disturbance for bees (e.g. livestock, people, wild animals, agricultural fields, etc.) are other variables considered in the hives’ positioning. Hives belonging to the same beekeeper are placed at a considerable distance from one another, possibly at different altitude levels, in order to best exploit the different blossoming seasons of different trees. The spreading of hives over a wide area may also function as a risk insurance mechanism, as, by doing so, beekeepers reduce the risk of catastrophic losses due to stochastic factors (e.g. theft, disease, etc.). In the Upper Forest area, we found only one collective apiary with modern hives. The Ogiek justify this on the basis of the difficulties in fitting modern hives, placed at ground level, to the forest ecosystem as a result of different factors, including adverse weather conditions, presence of predators (e.g. honey badgers, safari ants), disturbance by livestock grazing in the forest, and difficulties in colonizing modern beehives.
In the cultivated lowlands, modern beehives predominate. Apiaries are placed close to each other in open spaces (e.g. farmed fields, pastureland), preferably near the homestead, at the edge of forest patches, close to rivers, or a combination thereof, and in any case not far from crop fields (FIG. 6). In contrast to log hives, modern hives in the cultivated lowlands are grouped in fenced apiaries, including up to 40 hives in the same location. The majority of the beekeepers learnt these practices during workshops and training activities organized by NGOs and other actors involved in the MACODEV cooperative. Beekeepers did not mention relevant differences in the criteria used to set up apiaries of Langstroth and Kenyan Top-Bar (KTB) hives. They are used interchangeably, and the relative presence of one or the other rather reflects the decisions of NGOs and extension offices on which kind to donate.
Some log hives are also present at lower altitudes, usually in the same apiary in which modern hives are located or in patches of forest close to homesteads. Some beekeepers moved a part of their log hives from the forest to the lowlands, close to their homesteads. In doing so, they avoid travelling long distances to reach their hives in the forest and they have more time for crop farming and livestock rearing. The changing ecology and the smaller size of trees in the lowlands compelled beekeepers to place their log hives closer to the ground (1-3 m high) or on a wooden base, surrounded or covered by shrubby vegetation that provides shade, nectar, and pollen (e.g. Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley).
Attracting bees
Traditional Ogiek beekeeping relies on swarming bees to spontaneously colonize a log hive. To facilitate this, beekeepers burn Juniperus procera bark inside the hive before placing it on a tree, thus impregnating it with its scent. Propolis is also burnt for the same purpose as well as smeared inside the hive to close cracks and better isolate it.
Occupation of modern hives, in contrast, marks a decreasing reliance on traditional knowledge and practices, and an intensification of human intervention in the process. Techniques employed include the use of catch boxes to trap swarms and a mixture of water and sugar to feed bees during dry periods. Knowledge of such practices does not stem from vertical intergenerational transmission but rather from training and workshops promoted by national and international organizations through the MACODEV cooperative. Only a few beekeepers (less than 10%) actually employ traditional methods to attract bees in modern beehives, as most others prefer to burn branches, bark and leaves of Dombeya torrida and dry lichen (Usnea sp.) and to smear the ashes on the inner walls. These two practices were not reported by the interviewees as being used in the Upper Forest with log hives (although the two plants are important for other purposes, i.e. as melliferous and for hive construction), and seem to be attempts of adapting traditional knowledge to modern beehive management.
Harvesting and storing honey
The interviewees mentioned seven species whose parts are used in 15 different ways to harvest and store honey. In the Upper Forest, beekeepers climb the tree and cut off the hive’s comb to harvest the honey. Besides a knife and a container, the beekeeper carries a bundle of green or dry lichen of the genus Usnea, locally known as kurongurik, which is burnt along with pieces of J. procera bark, called sasiat. Sasiat and kurongurik are carried inside the motoget, a bag made from the leather of cow or red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) (FIG. 7). Honey is harvested by stunning the bees with smoke and extracting the honeycomb from a small opening on the bottom of the hive otherwise plugged with leaves of Hymenophyllum and Plagiochila species, both locally known as susuot.
Harvested honey is stored in two different containers, namely soyet and poleita, made, respectively, from Yushania alpina and Microglossa pyrifolia. The former, obtained by cutting a piece of bamboo and covering its ends with cow leather, is used to transport small quantities of honey as well as to harvest honey from stingless bees. The latter consists of a bag made from dry fibres in which honey is preserved for a long time. Another storing technique, used in the past but currently abandoned in favour of plastic buckets, involves keeping honey in a kisungut, i.e. a hollowed log of Juniperus procera sealed with propolis, covered with leaves and mosses, and placed one to a few metres above the ground over a wooden frame in the forest. The Ogiek maintain that honey was stored in the kisungut for years, consumed during times of food scarcity, especially by children, and used as a means of exchange with neighbouring communities [40, 48].
In the lowlands, with a limited presence of species such as Juniperus procera, Dombeya torrida and Vernonia auriculifera and a prevalence of modern hives, beekeepers use smoker guns, provided by NGOs and other organizations, fuelled by dry branches, leaves, and sawdust, to stun bees, with no further mention of specific plants used.