Miniature landfills:  Excavating Seaweeds in Byxelkrok, Öland Island (southeastern Sweden)

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3133165/v1

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Miniature landfills: Excavating Seaweeds in Byxelkrok, Öland Island (southeastern Sweden)

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3133165/v1

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The acceleration of consumption and trash disposal during the past century is responsible for the quick conversion of natural landscapes into landfills and dumpsites. Among the spots where discarded items land, studying coastlines is vital since these are areas where wind, water, land, and humans interact, causing discarded objects to land, get buried, and undergo other changes.

According to the fact that the Baltic Sea is one of the most polluted seas in the world, the authors conducted a garbological survey to explore the patterns of waste disposal and accumulation of garbage in Öland Island (south-eastern Sweden) in 2022–2023. Visiting Byxelkrok on the northern side of the Island, we found out that the seaweeds absorbed pieces of discarded objects. This initial observation was followed by three sets of excavation/extractions of six seaweeds in the summer and autumn of 2022.

The primary purpose of this article is to introduce the studied seaweeds as sources of absorbing discarded items and explain the process of identifying and researching them. Our primary method for studying these seaweeds is through garbology, where we inquire about human behaviors that lead to the buildup of waste on beaches and in the sea.

Garbology

seaweeds

landfills

Öland island

Baltic Sea

plastic pollution

The Baltic Sea is one of the most polluted seas in the world. Most of the pollution originates from inland activities (Stockholm International Water Institute, 2018). The modernization of traditional lifestyle, World Wars, population growth, tourism, and industrialization of local businesses have accelerated the production of household and industrial debris in the sea as well as the islands and seashores of the region, including Öland Island and Kalmar County (see. Jani and Hogland 2017; Hutniczak and Lone Grønbæk Kronbak, 2011; Ferrans et al., 2021; Froster, 2022).

Historically speaking, severe environmental problems documented in the Baltic Sea in the 1960s led to the 1974 creation of the Helsinki Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the Baltic Sea area (Elmgren et al., 2015:S335). This convention sets forth much stricter limitations on waste disposal in the sea area concerned than the Oslo Convention does for the northeast Atlantic (Ladner and Hagström, 1975:796). At the time of this decision, it was determined that the roughly threefold increase in phosphate content in the deeper layers of the Baltic in the post-World War II period coincided with an increased outflow of nutrients from land due to human activity. In addition, other kinds of pollutants, such as various harmful and toxic substances, wastes dumped into the sea, and oil, have contaminated the Baltic Sea, and they alone have made it one of the most dangerously polluted seas (Boczek, 1978:786; Elmgren, 1989).

It has been reported that the Baltic convention had a positive impact on the reduction of toxicity of the Baltic Sea. Though, increased international collaboration is vital to the efficient and effective mitigation of marine debris (Rinne, 1994). Still, the regional marine plastic footprint of the Baltic Basin is estimated at approximately 27,000 tonnes per year, with a dominance of microplastics in the leakage, followed by 5,452 tonnes of microplastics (Boucher et al. 2020).

At the same time, it has been estimated that eighty percent of marine debris is known to come from terrestrial sources (Leous and Parry, 2005:265). Therefore, it is of vital importance to elucidate the behaviors that result in the accumulation of waste in the sea and on the coastlines of the Baltic Sea.

With the purpose of exploring the patterns which end up in the pollution of the Baltic Sea, the authors conducted several visits and surveys to the Island of Öland. In the summer of 2021, Leila Papoli-Yazdi and William Hogland (2022) visited Öland and interviewed staff working at tourist camps as well as local farmers. The results of the interviews and observations reveal that the locals complain about the recent environmental changes and attribute some of the rapid transformations to the rising number of tourists.

The changes to the subsistence of Öland have been investigated from historical and sociological perspectives. Öland was industrialized in the 19th century through railway and factory constructions (Svensson, 2009). Nevertheless, the decline of the industry started during the Second World War on the island, and gradually, animal husbandry and tourism developed on the island.

In 2022–2023, we performed garbological studies to objectify the processes and behaviors which influenced the subsistence and environment of the island. We found out that coastlines represent a variety of activities since they are visited and used by tourists, local people, fishermen, and animals. In addition, the waste found on the beaches is not only the result of human activities on coastal lines but is also landed by the waves or moved by wind and can signify the condition of plastic and metal pollution.

In July 2022, we visited Byxelkrok (a small town), located on the northern side of Öland, for the first time. While surveying the coastline, we discovered that, unlike other visited places, the seaweeds on the tide line contained numerous pieces of waste. These seaweeds were recognized in six different spots on Byxelkrok sand beach and were thoroughly cleaned up and documented three times in a five-month time span till the municipality machines removed them in December 2022.

In this article, the process of studying Byxelkrok’s seaweeds is discussed. We attempt to introduce these seaweeds as sources of absorption of small pieces of waste while explaining the human behaviors which are influential in the formation process of these miniature landfills.

Öland Island: a geographical viewpoint

The Baltic covers an area of roughly 366,000 square kilometers (123,000 square miles), extending like a large and long fiord approximately from southwest to northeast on the eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula from latitude 540 to near the Arctic Circle (Boczek, 1978:784). Öland is an island (Fig. 1) located on the western side of the Baltic Sea and southeastern side of Sweden, which belongs to a large east Swedish cultural region that roughly includes the provinces of Uppland, Vistmanland, Niirke, Sodermanland, Ostergdtland, north-eastern Smiland, and Öland (Göransson, 1958:103).

The island is 137 km long and, in the most comprehensive parts(Figure.1), 16 km wide on average. A narrow body of water of 5–15 km in width separates Öland from the mainland of Sweden. This narrow water stream is broader in the north and south and less expansive in the center. Being an island, Öland can be conceptualized as a bounded system. Simultaneously, its territorial isolation has been a crucial factor in processes affecting the social and economic situation of the island (Sunnus, 1997:41–42). The significant length of Öland has caused its interaction with diverse spectrums with the mainland of Sweden and water. Additionally, the two eastern and western sides of the Island look entirely different from the perspectives of natural and cultural processes and human activities.

The western coasts of Öland (in the direction of the mainland) experience more peaceful waves, especially in summer (Gidstam, 1975:12), which is why they possess denser vegetation. The large limestone plateau in the southern part of the island of Öland known as Stora Alvaret (the Great Alvar) occupies ca. 25000 ha of almost uninterrupted alvar habitats. It forms the largest and most impressive Alvar landscape (Rosén and Maarel, 2000:66). More plants and natural remains are observed in the water /coastlines in this area. The eastern coasts of Öland towards the Baltic Sea are open and more exposed to the waves than the other sides. The sharp coastal cuts of this side represent such a feature throughout the eastern side on a macro scale.

In September 1972, the 6km bridge between Kalmar and Öland was opened. The construction of this bridge transformed the closure of the Öland very promptly. Namely, the most significant changes to the situation on the Island were the development and prosperity of the tourism industry (Pearce, 1996) and the expansion and relocation of the ports (see Bergman and Rosenqvist, 1983). In the long run, the development led to the construction of coastal camps and popular recreational beaches, mainly on the northern and western sides of the island.

Byxelkrok is a small town (population:168 people) located in the north of Borgholm County. The town is well-known for its diverse natural and cultural landscapes and coasts where tourists and visitors spend time, especially in summer. Byxelkrok’s beach has two main textures and landscapes. The first one is covered by stone. Tourists fossil hunt and sunbathe on these beaches, but these places are barely used for swimming or sailing. On the other hand, the sand beaches located on the western side of the town are more popular for swimmers and sailors. In the summer and on the sand and tide lines, the big bodies of the dried seaweeds are landed. Some of them have a length of more than 20 meters, but their width is usually less than 2 meters.

Studying modern garbage from an archaeological perspective dates back to the 1970s and under the specific title of garbology (Murphy and Rathje, 2001). However, from the late 1990s and the acceleration of climate and environmental crisis debates, archaeology developed advanced novel methods to investigate the materiality of pollution (see Van de Noort, 2013). Archaeologists have already characterized our period by highlighting modern garbage-making behaviors (Rick and Sandweiss, 2020) and the intensified rate of consumption and waste disposal. However, there are still serious questions, challenges, and attempts to classify the wide variety of objects discarded by modern humans from an archaeological perspective (Pétursdóttir, 2017). Needless to say, the universality, high velocity of consumption, and the massive amount of garbage produced daily complicate every single attempt to study waste disposal and garbage-making behavior.

One of the fields that archaeologists started to put on the list of their studies during the last decade is marine and coastal pollution (Schofield et al.,2020, 2021). In cases such as marine pollution, archaeology has been applied to objectify the process of the intensive entrance of nonorganic objects and garbage into the oceans over a long period from industrial time to the future (Rosane, 2019; Williams, 2022). To interpret the reasons for pollution, archaeologists step further and put together different aspects of modern life, such as colonialism (see Liboiron, 2021) and behavioral and social factors (Carpenter and Wolverton, 2017), which end up in exploring patterns of pollution (Douglass and Cooper, 2020).

Doing garbology on coastal areas (Schofield, 2020) and islands (Erlandson et al., 2006) is complicated since the coasts are the location of various activities such as swimming and playing, camping, fishing, and even industrial purposes. At the same time, the layers of sand and stone are fragile and challenging to survey or excavate using regular archaeological methods (see Faulds, 2021).

To study the coastal garbage in Öland, we adopted the garbology methodology. We chose garbology since the core issue of our study is the exploration of behavioral patterns which result in the abandonment of objects on the beaches.

It is of note that tourists and other people showed attention to our activities usually. This has been the start of conversations which has led to interviews which we have seen as sources of information. The authors' observation and documentation of the coasts in Byxelkrok occurred between 11 AM and 6 PM in the summer and autumn of 2022. The reason for choosing this time span is that it is light enough to see the tiny pieces of garbage. During the day, the level of seawater is at its lowest while the number of people on the beaches is at its peak. In addition to observing human behaviors, two complementary field methods have been implemented to collect the evidence. First, we surveyed, documented, and accessed the density, distribution, and variety of discarded items in sequential 1×1-meter squares. Secondly, we conducted under-surface surveys regarding the recognition of small-sized garbage (3-0.5cm). In the last step, the process, which results in the accumulation of waste in the interaction area, is scrutinized.

The scope of the sampling in the first step was 100 meters along the coastal strips and between the abovementioned lines in 1×1-meter sequences. The second procedure was carried out mainly in 1×1-meter square test trenches on the beach. The third step was to select the seaweeds and clean them (Fig. 2).

We used a hybrid approach that combined survey and excavation techniques to examine the seaweed debris. Six seaweeds (Table.1) found on the beach were identified after we surveyed the coastline. In a five months span, we extracted the waste from these seaweeds till December, when the municipality’s machines bulldozed the beach.

The studied seaweeds

The excavated seaweeds were located in a 17.93 square meter area on Byxelkrok’s western sand beach (57.323057 N, 17.004517 E to 57.324704 N, 17.006522 E) (Fig. 3). This seaweed clump, which is on the tide line, was entirely out of the water and dried at the time of the research. The species which form these accumulations are Bladderwrack (Blåstång), Fucus of the Baltic, and Cladophora (see Šarauskienė et al., 2020).

This combination of different species of seaweeds in Byxelkrok forms a net in which the discarded objects trap and can not be moved by wind and waves anymore. Due to this condition, the layers of sand and trapped objects are shaped one on above each other, which shows the sequence of formation of small landfills in the seaweeds. It is of note that in other spots where only one of these species is landed, the trapped material culture has not been observed.

At every time of visit and excavation, all the studied seaweeds were thoroughly cleaned. It can be assumed that the harvested material culture from July was washed up on the beach between late November 2021 and July 2022 because the beach is annually bulldozed in November or early December of each year.

The first studied seaweed was about 9 meters long and located beneath a short (2.5 meters) hill of sand where tourists and swimmers sunbathe. Our observation in August showed that close to each of the six studied seaweed (Table.1), tourists were sunbathing, eating, and playing. Speaking with these people, none of them had noticed the accumulation of garbage in the seaweed before visiting us in our work clothes.

Table 1

The number of objects found in the studied seaweeds
	Size (cm)	7th July 2022	1st August 2022	1st November 2022
Seaweed 1	900x135	223 pieces	77 pieces	22 pieces
Seaweed 2	100x900	108 pieces	67 pieces	51 pieces
Seaweed 3	1000x100	-	40 pieces	45 pieces
Seaweed 4	200x100	-	16 pieces	4 pieces
Seaweed 5	900x125	-	10 pieces	8 pieces
Seaweed 6	100x150	-	6 pieces	3 pieces

The discarded objects from Seaweed 1 in the first round of excavation weighed 953 grams (Fig. 4), while in the second round, it was 134 grams. In general, the seaweeds located on the south-western side of the beach contained more and heavier objects in comparison with the north-western ones. There was a direct ratio between the size of the seaweed and the magnitudes of the discarded objects they absorbed. The longer they were (such as Seaweed 1 and 2), the more objects they contained.

Seaweeds 1,2, and 4 (Table.1) were located in stable places. The lowest parts of these seaweeds were stabilized in the sand. The other seaweeds were not stabilized and, between the second and third visits, moved a couple of centimeters toward the north.

More than 65% of the items found in the seaweeds are made of plastic. These objects can be categorized into two main groups of industrial and regular plastic-made objects. From Seaweed 1,4,5, pieces of boats’ floor cover and industrial adhesive tape have been reported. From all the seaweeds, pieces of pink straws (Fig. 5), drinking bottles, and fishing nets have been recognized. Four pieces of toys were taken out from Seaweed 1, and the other cases did not contain plastic toys. Plastic bullets have been recognized in all of the cases. ‌A band-aid has been collected from Seaweed 4.

The biggest and most common category of pieces of plastic is those whose functions are unclear. These pieces are usually smaller than 5 cm and lack any recognizable shape. There are cases from Seaweed 1, 2, and 4, which are entirely decayed and crumpled. According to their condition, it was assumed that these groups of plastic had spent a long time underwater.

Figure 5- Pink straws from the excavation of Seaweed 2 (first round) (Photo: Leila Papoli-Yazdi)

Textiles were recognized from Seaweeds 1,3,5 and 2. Except for Seaweed 2’s textile, which is a piece of a handkerchief, the other pieces are socks, underwear, and pieces of swimsuits. A cotton volume was recognized from Seaweed 3, which might have an industrial function.

We considered industrial and colored pieces of wood as artificial objects. These pieces have been collected from Seaweeds 1,3,4, and 5. The only pieces of metal are of drinking cans, such as Coca Cola which have been observed among the objects collected from Seaweeds 1 and 6. In

addition, two cigarette butts were recognized in Seaweeds 4 and 5, but snus was not observed in any of the seaweeds. We also collected fruit pits though they are organic since they present the presence of human beings and their behaviors.

It is of note that the waste was not only found on the surface and at shallow depths. In an excavation in the sand, we figured out that pieces of plastic (in sizes observable to the naked eye) had infiltrated 50 sm beneath the surface.

In August 2022, an experiment was conducted by the authors on the Norrliden coast (northern Kalmar) to document the process of transformation into abandoned objects. On 28 August (Fig. 6), nine pieces of plastic toys were seen abandoned on the beach. The beach was visited every day till 5th September, when all the toys were washed up into the sea. The experiment showed that the plastic objects are moved by tide every day a couple of centimeters till they find their way into the water.

Analysis

The found objects are the results of at least three groups of humans and their behaviors: tourists and swimmers, hunters, and people using boats (local fishermen, sailors, and tourists). The items belonging to the first group, such as swimsuits, socks, straws, and toys, are abandoned directly on the beach. Due to the result of our surveys from other places, toys and children’s items were abandoned in 60% of the places. Our observation also confirmed that some of the visitors drink, eat, and change their clothes on the beach very close to the seaweeds, which might end up in the abundance of objects. Additionally, the abundance of toys and clothes shows that these are the young kids who usually forget to collect their possessions. Not only in Öland but also in Norrliden, where most of the visitors are local people, the same patterns have been observed.

Fishing and boat renovation in the ports, private villas, the sea, and coastal lines lead to the production and abundance of industrial plastic, colorful wood fragments, and fishing nets. Also, one of the most frequent items seen on beaches is the materialistic byproducts of hunting activities that come from both hunting on land and from boats.

As mentioned above, we discovered that the abandoned objects had developed layers in Seaweed 1, which appeared to be older than the other seaweeds. The lower layers were made up of shapeless bits of plastic that we assumed had been submerged for some time. The tourist-related items were found in the surface strata. Such a pattern was seen in other bigger seaweeds, such as Seaweed 2, but the smaller ones, such as 5 and 6, only contained light (below 20 grams) objects.

It can be assumed that these seaweeds absorb discarded objects underwater and, when landed outside water on the tide line, trap the other objects moving by waves, wind and human beings.

Categorization of the findings proves that these are not only tourists who involve in polluting the beaches. The local community also has a significant role in contaminating the Baltic Seas and its coastal lines by abandoning their plastic nets and fishing equipment. It is of note that there are activities such as hunting that are not practiced only by the locals or the tourists but by both communities.

An important question to ask about the Seaweed findings is how much of the absorbed material originates from Sweden and how much from the other countries around the sea, such as Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, or Germany. The closest city from the Sweden side to the Byxelkrok is Oskarhamn which is an industrial city and has a popular port. We assume that a major part of the found waste on Byxelkrok beach originates from Oskarhamn. Though, the accurate answer to the question of the origin of the landed discarded garbage should be replied to by tracking the floating objects in further phases of the project.

Formation Process

We usually contemplate the huge mounds made of garbage as landfills. Nevertheless, the studied seaweeds represent the existence of the other more minor forms of places in which absorbing waste is possible. Though, it is noteworthy to consider that not all species of seaweed have the potential to form a net to trap the waste. As mentioned above, not only the combination of the three species of algae but also the special topography and geographical characteristics of Byxelkrok are the critical factors in the development of these small landfills.

It seems that the movement of objects from the sea to the beach is not a new phenomenon to Byxelkrok. Historically, one of the historical texts mentioning the northern side of Öland is Linnaeus Travoluge (Linne, 2018), in which the author wrote that the waves would occasionally hurl small objects ashore in winter. Byxelkrok is almost open to the Baltic Sea in spite of the other locations on the island's north-western side. In addition to a large number of tourists and sailors who visit the area each year and their trash-producing habits, wind and waves also have a significant role in modifying the region's appearance. Though, the abandoned objects can potentially swim towards Byxelkrok from the mainland of Sweden either. Some of these objects are trapped in the algae underwater.

Once the seaweeds land on the beach, wind and waves move them around. In the second and third visits to Byxelkrok, we observed that each of the seaweeds that were studied previously had been moved a couple of centimeters towards the north and the east. Even the more stable and heavier seaweeds had experienced change, and parts of them were buried under the sand. The discarded objects also move by wind and waves, and their way ends up in the seaweed.

In autumn, there are fewer tourists, but on the contrary, the intensity of the waves increases (Fig. 7), and the water reaches its highest level. A layer of sand covers empty spaces within the seaweed every year, and finally, significant parts of these miniature landfills bury beneath hardened sand and form a small mound filled with waste.

How to study seaweed miniature landfills?

To study the abovementioned seaweeds, a combination of different methods is necessary. The first method we applied was a systematic survey that actually helped us to discover the accumulation of waste in the seaweeds. In the second step, we figured out that studying the seaweeds was complicated because of the complexity of the nature of these plants. They work like nets, but on the beach, it is difficult to notice the garbage inside them since there are algae and sand over them. At this point, we decided to excavate the seaweed. Nevertheless, unearthing the net that the seaweed had built up from above was roughly possible. So, we changed our direction and extracted the seaweed from two sides of it towards its center. At the same time, the layers of the seaweeds were removed horizontally since it was determined that there was a horizontal order for the formation of these small landfills. It is of note that our attempt has been not to destroy the seaweed, and we have focused on not removing them and only cleaning them thoroughly of the discarded objects.

Every material considered nonorganic was collected and classified based on the day of being collected and its place in the seaweed. These objects were later put in the same series with the next rounds of extraction of the same seaweed to illustrate the sequences based on the garbage that the seaweed has absorbed.

Meanwhile, we have also interviewed the people sitting around the seaweed (tourists and swimmers) and the people living in Byxelkrok (shopkeepers, sailors, and ordinary people). The information from the interview helped us to explore the behavioral patterns that end up in the contamination of seaweeds.

The prevalence of durable synthetic materials like plastic and mass consumption have left their marks all across the world. Trash can now be found anywhere, not just in landfills. Our visits to Öland demonstrated how the interaction between the sea and the beach creates new types of little landfills, from which the article's discussion of landed seaweeds derived.

The Baltic Sea and its coastal lines are ideal places to study the destination of abandoned garbage in the sea and beach due to its pollution condition. Despite considerable progress in understanding the process of contamination of the Baltic Sea, it is evident that knowledge gaps remain regarding the importance of different regulating factors, as well as describing the seasonal and spatial variability of nutrient removal processes (Asmala and et al., 2017: S234). So, it is worth studying the different aspects of pollution in the area from different angles.

Among the 66 spots we visited in Öland and Kalmar, Byxelkrok was unique since the combination of at least three species of algae had made nets on its beach that could trap discarded garbage. By discussing the process of extracting and excavating six of these seaweeds, we intend to introduce a new source of waste that work as small landfills and have the potential to absorb waste.

Despite the fact that the topic of this article is seaweeds, it is essential to mention that various other types of small landfills have slowly developed in the Baltic Sea region (see Papoli-Yazdi and Hogland, 2022). This demonstrates the urgent necessity to upgrade garbology's approaches so they can be applied to researching the many types of landfills. Otherwise, the focus of garbology on the behaviors of human beings makes it an applicable and useful approach to observe the roots of the situation in the Baltic Sea.

It is crucial to keep in mind that Sweden has formally removed all open landfills. Despite every effort, there are still modest, dispersed accumulations of trash because of how people behave. Our research shows that the larger seaweeds (1,2,3) may take in roughly 150 grams of plastic and other debris each month. The variety of abandoned items is a reflection of the various behaviors that lead to the vast amount of garbage. These items cover a range of activities, including playing, hunting, and tooth brushing. The waste gathered demonstrates the involvement of different people from various generations in the disposal of items.

As attempted to present in this article, the signs of human behaviors in the sea and on the beach, both the industrial and regular activities, are visible in the accumulation of garbage in the seaweeds. The categorization of abandoned waste shows that proper education and instructions may reduce the amount of discarded objects on the beach. According to the interviews with the campings staff and the tourists, it was revealed that the visitors are not given brochures, flyers, or any other sort of information about the critical environmental condition of the Baltic Sea and its coastlines. As mentioned above, the tourists and swimmers did not notice the waste in the seaweeds.

The same problem is with the local community. Although they usually blame the newcomers and tourists for the deterioration of the environmental condition, their fishing and hunting activities end up in the abundance of plastic and metal in nature. Moreover, one of the primary sources of nitrate and phosphate in the Baltic Sea is the fertilizers used by the farmers and the waste from animal husbandry.

The Byxelkrok’s seaweeds are located at the end of the chain of producing and discarding waste in the Baltic Sea or its coastal lines. These objects remain for a very long time in the seaweeds where animals live. Meanwhile, the smaller pieces of garbage find their way beneath the sand and change the texture of the beach.

To combat marine debris meaningful manner, marine pollution control measures must be integrated comprehensive binding strategy for environmental protection (Leous and Parry, 2005:267). To do so, garbology can provide detailed information about new forms of landfills and the human behaviors responsible for their formation.

Ethics and Declarations:

Competing interests

The authors (Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi) have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Funding

Both authors (Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi) certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

The authors (Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi) did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Authors' contributions

Both authors (Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi) have collaborated in field surveys, writing, and analysing the evidence. Both authors agreed with the content, and both gave explicit consent to submit the article.

Availability of data and materials

All the data have been collected and analysed by the authors (Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi) and are completely accessible to them.

Confirmed by Omran Garazhian and Leila Papoli-Yazdi- 21.06.2023

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No competing interests reported.

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Miniature landfills: Excavating Seaweeds in Byxelkrok, Öland Island (southeastern Sweden)

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Öland Island: a geographical viewpoint

Methodology of the Project

The studied seaweeds

Findings

Analysis

Formation Process

How to study seaweed miniature landfills?

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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