3.1 Diversity in the traditional foods in the Marind Anim tribe
The results showed that the Marind Anim tribe in Merauke utilized sago flour to create various food variants, namely papeda (Fig. 1), roasted sago or sago plates (Fig. 2), and sago sep (Fig. 3). The interview results show that sago-based special foods are common for the Marind Anim people in Merauke for a long while. The investigation also highlights that sago sep was originally developed by the Marind Anim indigenous people in Merauke.
Meanwhile, papeda is recognized as a typical cuisine of the northern coast people, and sago plates are known to originate from Maluku (Molucca). For the Marind Anim tribe, papeda and sago plates are better known as modified dishes originating from the northern Papua and Molucca, brought by the people migrating to Merauke long ago. According to Tulalessy [13], papeda is a special food in Papua, Maluku, and Sulawesi. Regardless of the place of origin, the porridge-like papeda is popular among the people in Eastern Indonesia.
3.1.1 Papeda: The sago porridge
Papeda, also known as the sago porridge, is served with yellow fish soup (with turmeric coloring), vegetables (usually kangkong, Ipomoea aquatica and papaya flowers, Carica papaya), and chili sauce (Fig. 2). Cooking papeda is simple, so this dish is classified as ready-to-eat food. However, the side dishes take time to prepare: fish soup, vegetables, and chili sauce. Papeda can be made from wet flour, which is widely available in traditional markets, and dry sago flour, which can be found in traditional markets and supermarkets. However, papeda from wet sago flour is preferable.
Sago flour is dissolved and rinsed in clean water. After that, it is sifted so that the flour to be cooked is the refined grains. Next, the wet flour is drained and put in a saucepan. Boiling water is added little by little while stirring continuously. The process stops only when the mixture has expanded with a glue-like consistency. No spices are added to keep the papeda’s taste plain, like other porridge dishes. The taste of papeda comes from the fish soup and sauce instead. Therefore, yellow fish dishes often require more ingredients and spices. In serving papeda, the fish soup is added to the plate. Then, papeda is scoped using a special papeda stirrer and a tablespoon and added to the plate. Next, vegetable and chili sauce are added to taste.
Most indigenous Papuans initially served papeda to entertain special guests in banquets for special traditional events. However, people can now cook papeda on various occasions without hosting special guests or celebrating certain traditional events. Papeda is also commonly available in some restaurants in Papua.
3.1.2 Roasted Sago or Sago Plates
Roasted sago or sago plates are also typical Papuan foods. The name is self-explanatory, meaning it is made by roasting the sago. First, sago is cooked in a mold, i.e., plates (Fig. 3). According to Tulalessy [13], sago plates are dry cakes that can be eaten immediately to accompany hot tea or coffee. In other areas, these are served with a fish sauce for dipping.
For the indigenous people of Marind Anim, sago plates are served daily. They do not consider that the food is originally from the Marind Anim people but was brought by the migrant communities from the Maluku (Molucca) Islands. The Molucans have indeed inhabited the area since the Dutch era. They brought the sago plate cooking traditions to Papua. The advantage of this food is that it can last up to several weeks. The plates are reddish and plain. However, along with the development of people's culinary tastes, this food is now available in various flavors, such as brown sugar or palm sugar.
Cooking sago plates is relatively easy by roasting them in rectangular iron molds. The ingredients are a half kilogram of wet sago flour, grated coconut, refined salt, and water. First, the sago is roasted in a large cauldron until slightly dry. Then, grated salted coconut is added. While being stirred, water is added. The mixture is then put in a mold that has been heated on the fire. After one side turns yellowish, the is turned over. After both sides are cooked, the sago plates are removed and served. They can be paired with sweet tea or coffee. In some areas, they are served with savory side dishes, such as salted fish, tamarind and eggplant sauce, or grilled fish.
3.1.3 Sago Sep
Sago Sep originates from the lowland area of Merauke, as opposed to papeda, which is popular in northern Papua. These food preferences may depend on the culture [14]. People in this area are familiar with hunting and gathering culture. The protein is obtained from hunting in the forest, while the source of carbohydrates comes from gathering. Sago is collected by extracting the plants in the forest. The lowland region of Merauke has other natural resources, including coconuts, kangaroos, deer, various types of fish, and wild boars [15]. Coconut plants grow along the coast, whereas kangaroos, deers, and wild boars are common games [4].
Sago sep is mainly made from sago and coconut. The coconut can be either grated old coconut or shredded young coconut. The interview indicates that the community prefers to use young coconuts. Other ingredients are coconut water, fish and meat, sugar, and salt. The sago flour is usually wet. Modern machine tools to extract sago from plants produce less tasty starch than the traditionally extracted sago starch. That is why indigenous peoples prefer to use flour from the traditional extractor.
The ingredients are one kilogram of sago flour, eight to ten coconuts, three tablespoons of sugar, one teaspoon of salt, and one cup of coconut water. Meat or fish can be added, which amounts to one kilogram. At first, the sago is sprinkled with coconut water to make it slightly wet. Then, the sago flour is mixed with salt and sugar. Next, the shredded coconut is added and stirred evenly. The dough is compacted on a baking sheet lined with banana leaves with a height of around 2.5 centimeters, the width, and length according to the baking sheet. The dough is wrapped and baked in an oven for around 30 minutes. After cooking (Fig. 4), the sago sep is cut into rectangular or square sizes. There are several variants of sago sep depending on the ingredients (Table 1). For example, sago sep Komabo is made by adding meat, such as beef, deer, kangaroo, or pork, to the sago sep dough (Fig. 6).
The indigenous people cook sago sep on a larger scale (Fig. 5) for traditional ceremonies, such as wedding receptions, banquets for special guests, and church or village events. To cook sago sep on a large scale, they usually cook it using barapen using stones or bus wood (Melaleuca sp.), which grows abundantly in the lowland areas of Merauke. This plant can grow and adapt in swampy areas and is widely used by the Marind Anim people.
Table 1
Variants of sago sep produced by the Marind Anim people in Merauke, Indonesia
| No | Food products | Ingredients | How to cook |
| 1. | Sagu sep: Teta | Sago and cooked bananas | • Bananas that have been boiled are mashed, then mixed with sago until it thickens • The concoction is wrapped in banana leaves • The banana leaves are smeared with oil so it does not stick • Then sago sep is roasted (in barapen) |
| 2. | Sagu sep: Komabo | Sago, meat, and coconut | • The meat is cut into small pieces • The meat is mixed with sago and coconut • The concoction is cooked by the fire (barapen) • When the cooked meat is used, it is called Wanngilamo |
| 3. | Sagu sep: Nggalamo | Sago, coconut, meat, coconut milk | • The meat is cut into larger pieces • When the Nggalamo is mixed with coconut milk, it is called Kaka |
| 4. | Sagu sep: Ebayak | Sago and water | • The sago flour is slightly moistened, so it is a bit sticky • The concoction is made into round shapes • The sago sep is roasted until it turns brown |
| 5. | Sagu sep: Kwetahuk | Sago and water | • The sago flour is slightly moistened, so it is a bit sticky • The sago is poured into a pan that has been heated (without oil) • The sago sep is shaped like an omelet |
| 6. | Sagu sep: Sinoli | Sago and grated coconut | • The sago flour is mixed with grated coconut • The mixture is fried in a pan (without cooking oil) until it turns brown |
An area with the same geographical characteristics tends to produce similar foodstuffs [16]. In the southern region of Papua, where the Marin Anim people live, sago plants grow naturally. In the mythology of the Marind Anim tribe, the sago plant was born from a supernatural figure [17]. Therefore, the sago plant is magical and sacred. The presentation of sago, such as sago sep, is aimed at ceremonial events served to the closest family relatives and guests, such as commemorating the 40th day of the death of relative or traditional party ceremonies.
3.2 Sago as the Glue for Indigenous Peoples' Relations
Every food has a story behind it. Eating is a fundamental biological need humans have to fulfill to survive. Apart from that, food is also a means of cultural communication [21, 22, 27]. Food also has a social role, a standard of wealth, a barometer of social status, and a symbolic mediator in defining and manipulating kinship and social relations [18]. Davis [19] on the Minangkabau community, Kadir et al. [4] in the Marind Anim Society, have shown that food is a cultural element that shows social relations. For the Marind Anim tribe, sago is the guarantee of life and the survival of humankind. Even the existence of sago as a staple food source is also a symbol of the identity and culture of the Marind Anim people.
3.2.1 Sago as a Clan’s Totem
Totems are certain animals, plants, or natural phenomena seen as the first ancestor of a clan or other genealogical units [3]. For the Marind Anim people, each clan has its ancestral totem. The Sago totem is held by the Mahuze clan and is seen as something sacred and must be treated properly according to customary provisions. Therefore, the Mahuze clan bears the sago plant as their totem and is recognized by all clans in the lowlands of Merauke. This customary agreement is important in maintaining and preserving sago plants as a food source for the local communities.
3.2.2 Sago as a Glue of Social Relations
The food reflects the community’s cultural characteristics. In traditional communities such as the Marind Anim tribe, sago food is a glue for social relations among clans, especially in traditional ceremonies such as funerals, marriages, and conflict resolutions. Sago must be served in a way that shows affection, attention, and friendship. For the Marrind Anim people, eating together is the essence of a communal culture that can maintain their survival. Therefore, sago must be presented as it will bring a sense of completeness. Fulfilling this becomes an obligation and social responsibility for those who carry out the ritual [4]. This highlights the importance of the relationship between families, clients, tourists, and incomes in opening a food business that involves traditional food [26]. Traditional food will be known by many people, and demand will emerge periodically until finally, the preference for this food is driven by the people's interests [20].