Introduction of the potter’s wheel as a reflection of social and economic changes during the La Tène period in Central Europe

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3215720/v1

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Introduction of the potter’s wheel as a reflection of social and economic changes during the La Tène period in Central Europe

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3215720/v1

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published 05 Dec, 2023

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The use of the potter’s wheel or, more generally, rotational motion in pottery-forming was one of the fundamental innovations in pottery technology. This study focuses on the introduction of pottery-forming methods employing rotational movement in relation to social and economic conditions and their transformations during the La Tène period in Central Europe. It builds on our previous work and explores the diversity of technological practices on a broader geographical scale in several regions of the Czech Republic with various demographic, social and environmental conditions during the period. The analysis relies on a recently developed quantitative analytical technique based on calculating the orientation of components of the ceramic body. This approach enhances the structural analysis by delineating intervals of orientation variability for individual forming techniques. This methodology is applied to estimate the contribution of rotational movement in pottery-forming and identify the initial forming techniques. The quantitative analysis of thin sections is supplemented by qualitative classification of diagnostic features observed on X-ray images and CT reconstructions. By implementing this analysis, we have discovered specific developments of pottery-forming practices in the selected regions. The specifics demonstrate the expected links of the studied innovation to local socio-economic conditions, as well as surprising findings indicating that neither the use of the technology nor the resulting products are subject to unilateral selection based on the criterion of economic efficiency.

Pottery technology

Technological innovation

Potter’s wheel

La Tène period

Central Europe

Orientation analysis

Innovations in pottery technology that emerged in the La Tène period in Central Europe reflect the most notable changes in pottery production since its inception in Neolithic societies. These innovations have contributed to the considerable technological diversity observed during this period. The diverse technological practices reflect the development of complex socio-economic relationships within the pottery production system and indirectly indicate the dynamic evolution of the structure of the La Tène society (Arnold and Gibson 1995; Schönfelder 2009; Buchsenschutz et al. 2012). The potter's wheel or, more generally, the use of rotational motion in pottery forming was one of the principal innovations. This innovation is particularly important for studying La Tène society due to its specific requirements and performances (Roux and Corbetta 1989; Roux 2019). The prerequisite for spreading of this innovation is fulfilling these requirements, corresponding to the specific socio-economic conditions at the time.

Study of the use of rotational motion in pottery-forming has a fruitful tradition, especially in Near East and Mediterranean archaeology. The study focused on the development of techniques suitable for the identification of various means of the use of rotational devices and the conceptualisation of this innovation within the social and cultural context (Roux and Courty 1998; Knappett 1999, 2004, 2016; Roux 2003, 2009; Berg 2007, 2009; Roux and de Miroschedji 2009; Jeffra 2011, 2013; Crewe and Knappett 2012; Knappett and Leeuw 2014; Gauss et al. 2015; Gorogianni et al. 2016; Röckl and Jacobs 2016; Baldi and Roux 2016).

This kind of approach to studying wheel-made pottery in Central Europe is exceptional. Many authors intuitively use technical characteristics or concepts of organisation of manufacturing process without grounding them in adequate analytical methodology, argumentation or evidence. Petrographic and mineralogical analyses are usually focused on provenance without a theoretical framework for an appropriate interpretation of the data. Ch. Gosden applied the most comprehensive approach to the various aspects in studying La Tène A wheel-made pottery (Gosden 1983, 1985, 1987). Attention was mostly paid to the first wheel-made pottery in the context of the Late Hallstatt period (Balzer 2015; Tappert 2015). Other publications were focused on the later stages of the La Tène period (Cumberpatch and Pawlikowski 1988; Cumberpatch 1993a, b, 1995). Apart from the provenance and visual characteristics of pottery, only minor attention was paid to the diversity of manufacturing processes and their significance for interpreting changes in pottery production in the context of the social and economic environment.

The approach applied in this study relies on the idea that technology is not merely a means of manufacturing objects but one of the essential dimensions of cultural existence. Technical practice is a cultural phenomenon combining various elements, many of which are not purely technical – locations, actors, gestures, tools, raw materials, organisation, knowledge, ritual and taboos. Such combinations create specific technological styles or chaîne opératoires (e.g., Leroi-Gourhan 1964; Lechtman 1977; Haudricourt 1987; van der Leeuw and Torrence 1989; Gosselain 1992, 1998, 2000, 2011; Lemonnier 1992, 1993; Pfaffenberger 1992; Dobres and Hoffman 1994; Stark 1998; Dobres 2000; Sillar and Tite 2000; Skibo and Schiffer 2008; Stark et al. 2008). All the elements (irrespective of whether human or nonhuman) act in their creation and reproduction (Knappett and Malafouris 2008; Knappett 2016) and each technical practice is conceptualised as a cultural trait with a priori unknown dependence (cultural, social, technological, economic, symbolic, etc.) on other traits.

The key aspect in this study is the nature of the technological changes. We approached this aspect within the discourse on the theory of cultural evolution (e.g., Boyd and Richerson 1985; Shennan 2002; Henrich and McElreath 2003, 2007; Collard et al. 2006; O'Brien and Shennan 2010; Nunn et al. 2010). This theory provides a fruitful basis for conceptualising cultural change without reducing the perspective of cultural transmission to simple information transfer by learning mechanisms. The exploration of similarities and differences among chaîne opératoires in time and space is based on the performance analysis of the components of chaîne opératoires. Performances facilitate specific interactions between objects, people, and the environment. Performances in activities all along the behavioural chain define social, symbolic, and utilitarian functions of an object or process (e.g., Schiffer and Skibo 1987; Lemonnier 1992; O'Brien et al. 1994; Fitzhugh 2001; Skibo and Schiffer 2001, 2008; Schiffer 2004). Performances are means of interaction within the whole network in which the technology is incorporated. The mapping of performances is a way of illuminating the individual components of chaîne opératoire without a priori attributing the value of the trait according to its performance. The meaning of the trait arises from the context of other components of the chaîne opératoire.

The concept of performance is particularly interesting when considering the use of rotational motion for pottery forming because this general technological idea can be practised in various ways. The different ways of applying the concept imply the different performance characteristics of the respective methods (skill, production and tool requirements) with the consequences for their potential to be transmitted within the population. In this respect, the distinction among methods based on the contribution of rotational movement in the forming sequence is crucial (Henrickson 1991; Courty and Roux 1995; Berg 2007, 2008a; Roux 2010; Thér et al. 2017). We define three levels that simplify the diversity of the use of rotational movement but represent critical differences in the performance of forming methods: (a) the application of rotational movement to regularised the surface and correct the shape of the vessel (wheel finishing); (b) the use of rotational kinetic energy (RKE) to shape and thin the walls of the vessel (wheel shaping) and (c) using RKE throughout the forming process (wheel throwing).

The exclusive use of RKE in the forming sequence (wheel throwing) provides time-saving efficiency but requires higher skill levels (Roux and Corbetta 1989; Roux 2019). Conversely, other methods may be less efficient and demand fewer skills (wheel finishing) but yield novel visual performances of products compared to alternative forming methods (cf. Foster 1959; Nicklin 1971; Kramer 1985; Gelbert 1997; Roux and Courty 1998; Thér et al. 2015b; Roux 2019). The performance characteristics of these methods, encompassing skill and tool requirements, efficiency, and visible effects on the finished product, play a pivotal role in replicating and disseminating these practices within society. The value attributed to a particular performance is not universal and depends on the cultural, social, and economic context. For instance, time-saving efficiency may be inconsequential in situations where time is not a pressing concern, and a specific visual appearance may hold little importance if there is no desire for such an aesthetic result (the role of the cultural and social context in the innovation process is frequently emphasised in the anthropological literature e.g., Haudricourt 1987; van der Leeuw and Torrence 1989; Gosselain 1992, 1998, Lemonnier 1992, 1993; Pfaffenberger 1992; Marcia-Anne Dobres and Hoffman 1994; Stark 1998; Maria-Anne Dobres 2000; Sillar and Tite 2000; Skibo and Schiffer 2008).

As has been suggested, the reason for imitating the innovations need not be the performance of the process but the performance of the resultant product. The potential depends on the degree to which the results of an innovation can be perceived by users (Rogers 1983). The performances of the products co-define the learning dynamics of the respective manufacturing processes. The product attributes with visually distinctive performances express social or cultural information, which can be communicated independently of the manufacturer. On the other hand, manufacturing processes such as paste preparation, forming or firing are based on technological actions that can only be transmitted through direct learning. The pottery attributes that are a consequence of these manufacturing processes are not regarded as representing a means of social communication, but more indirectly, they reflect the social communication amongst potters and potters and pottery users (cf. Gosselain 2000). Furthermore, it is acknowledged that the adoption of a cultural trait can occur for reasons unrelated to its performance (Roux and Courty 2013). As a result, we do not consider the performance approach an explanatory concept.

The significance of individual performances is transformed in changing cultural, social and economic environments. The study of the evolution of technology in relation to social configurations and their transformations is a means of illuminating the social dimension of technological changes. The La Tène period in Central Europe is a suitable arena for such a study.

The beginning of the La Tène period (LT A phase, 480/460–390/375 BC) remains related to the late Hallstatt culture of the preceding period (Ha D2–3; 540/530–480/460 BC). In the central regions of Northeastern France, Southern Germany, and southern and western parts of Bohemia, this period is characterised by a high degree of centralisation and social stratification, accompanied by strong elite manifestations such as Mediterranean imports, fortified settlements and elaborate burials under mounds. On the other hand, there is no evidence for specific centres of production (e.g., Frankenstein and Rowlands 1978; Kristiansen 1998; Pauli 1980; Bintliff 1984; Pauli 1984; Nash 1985; Dietler 1989, 1995; Brun 1995; Pare 1991). The LT A period in Bohemia is associated with the earliest evidence for wheel-made pottery (e.g., Thér and Mangel 2014). The transition between the LT A and LT B phases in Bohemia was accompanied by significant social changes, including the discontinuity of burial practices and settlement areas in most known cases (Venclová 2013a; Dreslerová et al. 2022). The entire subsequent period of LT B–C1 (390/375–190/175 BC) was characterised by social decentralisation and the absence of distinctive elite features. Lowland agricultural settlements predominated. It is difficult to identify them on the basis of the poorly distinguishable settlement pottery, especially in the LT B phase (Rulf and Salač 1995; Salač and Kubálek 2015; Dreslerová et al. 2022). The deceased were buried with more or less standardised grave goods in flat, predominantly skeletal cemeteries and represent the primary knowledge source. During the LT C phase, in addition to the common agricultural settlements, large central lowland agglomerations with evidence for specialised production and long-distance contacts begin to appear (e.g., Büchsenschütz 1995; Collis 1995; Cumberpatch 1995; Salač 1996, 2011; Augstein 2006; Trebsche 2020). Simultaneously, the settlement network became denser, expanding into previously unfavourable peripheral areas (Waldhauser 1985; Danielisová et al. 2019).

Further significant social changes are evident in the transition between LT C1 and LT C2. These changes are associated, among other things, with changes in burial rituals, which resulted in a decrease in burial evidence in the following period. The LT C2–D1 period (190/175–50/30 BC) is also associated with further diversification of settlement forms, indicating an increase in economic interconnectedness within society and a more developed division of labour (Renfrew 1974; Crumley 1987, 1995a, b;chsenschütz 1995; Thurston 2009). Fortified centres known as oppida became a significant phenomenon during this period. The oppida partly take over the functions of the open lowland settlement agglomerations, which mainly engaged in long-distance exchange and specialised production (Collis 1984, 1995; Brun 1995; Büchsenschütz 1995; Crumley 1995a; Wells 1995; Salač 1996; Venclová 2002; Augstein 2006; Danielisová 2011).

This study builds on our previous work on the introduction of the potter's wheel in Central Europe in a small region in Eastern Bohemia (Chrudim region) (Thér et al. 2014, 2015a, b, 2017) and the densely occupied Brno region in Southern Moravia (Thér and Mangel 2021). Analysis of these regions demonstrated the differences in trajectories leading to establishment of the potter's wheel in regions with different socio-economic conditions, suggesting the dependence of the innovation process on these conditions. The Brno region exhibited continuous development with an increasing proportion of wheel-thrown pottery, indicating technology transmission via a wide learning network of producers. In contrast, the Chrudim region provided evidence for disruptive technological changes, characterised by regression of the use of rotational movement in pottery-forming and even a change in the direction of rotation (Thér and Mangel 2021). The presented study substantially enlarges the analytical dataset and explores the diversity of technological practices on a broader geographical scale in several regions of the Czech Republic with various demographic, social and environmental conditions during the relevant period.

The main questions in the analysis are:

1. How was rotational movement employed in the pottery-forming sequence?

2. Is the appearance of the innovation and its form associated with the attributes of social complexity and inequality?

3. How did these aspects change during the La Tène period?

4. How has the application of the innovation and its integration into pottery production varied in different regions?

Archaeological sites from four geographical areas with evidence of La Tène settlement were selected to study the use of the potter's wheel: central part of Central Bohemia, eastern edge of Central Bohemia, Northwest Bohemia and Western Bohemia (Fig. 1; Supplementary 1). Settlement in these regions created geographically distinct areas, especially during the Ha D2 - LT A period, but their boundaries became partially blurred in the later phases (Militký et al. 2019; Dreslerová et al. 2022). However, during the La Tène period, the regions also differed in certain cultural aspects and dynamics of development. Cultural boundaries between them can best be identified as pottery distributional areas. The regionally conditioned formal and technological differentiation of pottery production observed within Bohemia from the beginning of the LT C provided the basis for their definition. J. Waldhauser (1996) defined three essential areas: 1) the Lower Vltava-Elbe area, which coincides with the area of Central and Eastern Bohemia and includes the first two sampled regions; 2) the foothills of the Ore Mountains area, which coincides with the region of NW Bohemia; and 3) the Otava-Middle Vltava area, which coincides with the southern Bohemian region (not included in the sampling). Recently, another area with distinctive pottery style has been defined (Metlička et al. 2022), which covers the sampled region of W Bohemia. Within NW Bohemian territory, three sub-regions have been proposed for the LT C2-D1 period, each exhibiting differences in the production of coarse pottery: the Bílina region, Central Ohře River region and Lower Ohře River region (Salač 1990).

The central area of Central Bohemia can be broadly defined as the northwest and central part of the Central Bohemian region. Its northern parts belong to the flat and fertile terrains of the Central Bohemian Table and the Prague Plateau (Demek and Mackovčin 2006). To the south and southwest, the landscape is gradually transformed into hilly and less agriculturally suitable areas of the Central Bohemian Uplands. La Tène settlements are mainly associated with the area's northern parts. Intensive landscape use is mainly observed in the basin of the lower Vltava, between its confluences with the Berounka to the south and the Elbe to the north and its smaller tributaries. Regarding settlement geography during the La Tène period, it is a central region with a dense network of settlements. Other aspects of the archaeological record confirm the central character of the area. Intensive occupation is documented in all the observed periods. The main source for understanding the LT A phase consists of numerous lowland settlements, many of which follow older periods of occupation. The central fortified settlement of Závist held a specific position in the settlement structure of this period (Drda and Rybová 2008). The site is known primarily for the existence of a enclosed acropolis with stone podiums influenced by Mediterranean building traditions. Závist also provides evidence of long-distance contacts within a vast network connecting a significant part of Europe. The presence of elites and the significance of the region are also indicated by a higher concentration of Mediterranean imports or their imitations found at local Late Hallstatt and early La Tène settlements (Trefný 2011, 2022; Trefný and Polišenský 2013, 2014). The concentration of elite burials in the area of the Vltava and Labe confluence also indicates the existence of a significant settlement agglomeration (Chytráček 2013; Mangel et al. 2023). For the following LT B–C1 period, similar to the rest of Bohemia, there is a reduction in evidence of settlements, partly due to the poorer recognizability of settlement areas from this period. In addition to a smaller number of known settlements, numerous burial areas, including several extensive necropolises, attest to the continued importance of the region (Hlava 2017; Sankot in print). A significant increase in known lowland settlements occurs again in the LT C period. During the LT C2-D1 period, several oppida also emerge in the southern part of Central Bohemia (Drda and Rybová 1997). The northernmost of these was located on the southern edge of the working area, in the location of the older central hillfort at Závist. The existence of Central Bohemian oppida is associated with the control of the so-called Vltava route, which connected Central Bohemia with the Danubian region (Venclová 2013b). In the northern parts of the region, this route was connected with another important communication corridor, the Elbe route, which connected the Central Bohemian area with NW Bohemia, Saxony, and central Germany to the west and with Eastern Bohemia and Moravia to the east. The presence of iron ore deposits located in the Říčany area in the eastern part of the sampled region may have also shaped the settlement of the region during the later stages of the La Tène period (Venclová 2008). Most of the sampled sites belong to common lowland settlements. A specific position among them is held by the Late Hallstatt to early La Tène settlement of Prague-Pitkovice, from which several artefacts of Mediterranean origin and their imitations associated with the presence of elites have been found (Trefný and Polišenský 2008, 2013, 2014). Another exceptional site is the Závist hillfort, from which samples were taken both from the context of the early La Tène acropolis and situations related to the existence of the oppidum during LT C2–D1 (Motyková-Šneidrová et al. 1978; Drda and Rybová 2008).

The area located on the eastern edge of Central Bohemia was analysed separately. It encompasses the fertile territory of the Central Elbe Table, with the central course of the Elbe River forming its backbone (Demek and Mackovčin 2006). During the La Tène period, we can observe continuous and uninterrupted settlement in this area, although its density appears to be slightly smaller compared to the central and northwest parts of Central Bohemia. The settlement of the Middle Elbe region seamlessly transitions into this region. Further east and northeast, it transforms into a specific settlement area of eastern Bohemia, which has a more peripheral character (e.g., Mangel et al. 2013). The occupation from Ha D2 to LT A is represented by a network of lowland settlements and a few burials, without significant concentrations of evidence indicating the presence of elites. The continuous utilisation of the area during the subsequent LT B-C1 period is reflected in several smaller necropolises (e.g., Čižmář and Valentová 1977; Sedláčková and Waldhauser 1987). In this period, no later than during LT B2-C1, a significant lowland settlement in Žehuň was established in the region. It undoubtedly maintained its central functions until the end of the La Tène period (Danielisová et al. 2018). In the LT C2-D1 period, when common lowland settlements again represent the primary source of knowledge, the role of the region is further strengthened by the emergence of a hilltop (possibly fortified?) settlement - a castellum located in Kolo near Týnec nad Labem, whose significance was undoubtedly supra-regional. The recently excavated settlement at the foot of this centre, located directly on the banks of the Labe River, yielded numerous coin and non-coin imports (Militký and Beneš 2016; Beneš 2020). These indicate the involvement in long-distance contacts directed towards the Amber Road corridor, the Middle Danube, and the areas west of the Bohemian Basin. These two sites and likely the entire region along the middle course of the Elbe River benefited to some extent from the location in the east-west corridor of long-distance communication following the course of the Elbe River. The region is represented in the study by the settlement of Kanín, dated to LT A (Elšíková 2009; Megaw and Megaw 2010), and the settlement at the foot of castellum in Kolo near Týnec nad Labem, in LT D1 (Beneš 2015).

The area of NW Bohemia represents the territory between the Ore Mountains and the Ohře River. The La Tène settlement is primarily associated with the fertile lowland areas of the Most Basin and the Lower Ohře Table (Demek and Mackovčin 2006). Besides favourable agricultural conditions, the region also provided a wide range of mineral deposits (iron ores, ores of non-ferrous metals, and rocks for querns production), which were exploited (Venclová 2013a). The watercourses of the Ohře and Bílina rivers formed the backbone of intensively settled areas. The Elbe River was also of significant importance and represented the discussed region's natural southeastern border. Parallel to it undoubtedly ran a corridor of long-distance communication connecting the Central Bohemian region with the territory of present-day Saxony and further into Central Germany (Salač 1998; Venclová 2013b, a). Another essential communication route followed the course of the Ohře River towards the southwest (Salač and von Carnap-Bornheim 1994; Chytráček and Metlička 2004). The settlement of the LT A period is represented by relatively numerous and often continuous lowland settlements covering a broader period from Ha D2 to LT A. Some of these settlements (e.g., Soběsuky Holodňák 1991; Radovesice: Waldhauser 1993; Salač and Kubálek 2015) were also inhabited in the subsequent phases until the end of the La Tène period. There is no substantial evidence for the presence of elites during the 5th century BC. However, this is indicated, for example, by the enclosed farmstead (Herrenhof) with Attic pottery finds in Droužkovice (Bouzek and Smrž 1994; Smrž 1996) or the late Hallstatt hillfort at Rubín situated on the southern border of NW Bohemia (Sankot 2009). The occupation continued with slightly reduced intensity in the following LT B-C1 period. The extent of settlement in this period is demonstrated by numerous necropolises, some of which are relatively extensive, in addition to lowland settlements (Zápotocký 1973; Waldhauser 1978, 1987; Holodňák 1988). The increase in the number of known settlements is then associated with LT C2-D1. No oppida or other hilltop centres have been documented in NW Bohemia during this period. However, the role of a central site was fulfilled by the extensive agglomeration in Lovosice (Salač 1991, 2012). Situated on the Elbe River, in a position beneficial for contact with other regions, the site provided evidence of a range of specialised production activities (especially the production of rotary querns and pottery). It was undoubtedly actively involved in trade of supra-regional significance. The sampling of NW Bohemian sites focused on situations from three settlement areas. Pohlody represents a typical lowland settlement with the LT A and C2-D1 phases (Vlčková 1991). The settlement in Soběsuky was continuously inhabited from Ha D to LT D1 (Salač and Kubálek 2015). Of particular significance among the NW Bohemian settlements is the production and distribution centre in Lovosice, from which samples were taken from the complex with one of the excavated pottery kilns (Salač 1991; Mangel and Thér 2018).

The last region subjected to sampling represents W Bohemia. The region is situated in the higher elevated and less agriculturally suitable areas of the Plzeň Uplands (Demek and Mackovčin 2006). The La Tène occupation is mainly associated with the area of the Plzeň Basin and its wider surroundings in the basins of the Mže, Radbuza, Úhlava, Úslava, Střela and Berounka rivers. In the 5th century BC, W Bohemia belonged to the areas with strong manifestations of elites. The significance of the region, especially during the transition from Ha D3/LT A and in the earlier phase of LT A, is indicated by a series of elite burials equipped with harness components, two-wheeled wagons, and Mediterranean imports (Chytráček 1983, 2000, 2012; Kozáková et al. 2016; Trefný 2017). Numerous hillforts and highland settlements dating from Ha D2-3 have been documented in the region, but their number significantly decreases during the transition to LT A (Chytráček and Metlička 2004). From the advanced phase of the LT A period, there is only sporadic evidence for settlements in hilltop locations and, at the end of this period, they ceased to exist. On the other hand, relatively numerous lowland settlements from this phase have been documented. The presence of elites and the settlement of the less agriculturally suitable environment in W Bohemia is probably related to the corridor of long-distance communication running parallel to the Berounka and Radbuza rivers, connecting the more northern and eastern regions of Bohemia with the territory of Bavaria and the Bavarian Danube (Chytráček and Metlička 2004). The presence of iron ore and ores of non-ferrous metals (Waldhauser and Klsák 1998; Chytráček and Metlička 2004; Trefný 2017) may have played a role in the occupation of the area. However, there is a significant shift in the transition between LT A to LT B1. The entire region transforms into a peripheral transit area. Currently, from the entire W Bohemia region, only three burials from two sites have been found, which can be roughly dated to LT B-C1 (Baštová 1986; Čechura 2013). This transformation is associated with a deterioration in the climate that occurred around 400 BC and its impact may have been more pronounced in the reduction of stable settlements in less agriculturally suitable areas (Maise 1998; Chytráček and Metlička 2004; cf. Dreslerová et al. 2022). An increase in stable occupation, represented by about fifty lowland settlements, can be observed again during LT C and LT D1 (Waldhauser and Klsák 1998; Řezáč 2004; Metlička et al. 2022). For analysis, ceramics from the LT A period (up to LT A/B1) from settlements in Líně, Mašovice, and Plzeň-Roudná were selected. The remaining samples came from collections associated with settlements of the LT C period, or specifically LT C2-D1.

Sampling

The sampling unit was a sunken huts. Archaeologically, sunken huts are manifested as roughly rectangular pits with evidence of postholes, characterised by a relatively abundant presence of pottery. The goal was to sample three sunken huts from one settlement phase at each site. Sunken huts are considered to represent households/consumer units, i.e., groups of users who obtained ceramics based on specific conditions determined by their social and economic connections. Of course, we cannot consider ceramic assemblages from sunken huts as closed-find units representing the inventory of a given household. The assemblages may have a diverse histories and formation dynamics and it is necessary to consider that they were created over a long period and contain objects from other parts and phases of the settlement. Therefore, we consider the resulting statistics to be orientational, pointing only to notable trends in the composition of ceramic assemblages. Despite their limited informational value, there is nothing more suitable for systematic sampling considering the spectrum of archaeological situations of the given period (Supplementary 1).

The development of the use of the potter's wheel was traced throughout the La Tène period (480/460 − 50/30 BC). Three primary phases corresponding to three successive chronological periods were compared, reflecting the aforementioned significant changes in the archaeological record, which also indicate major changes in society within the period: the LT A (480/460 − 390/375 BC), LT B-C1 (390/375 − 190/175 BC) and LT C2-D1 (190/175 − 50/30 BC).

If we found an assemblage that was strongly heterogeneous in terms of the presence of chronologically sensitive phenomena, we omitted it from the sampling or, if there was no other alternative, we only took samples for analysis without any ambition to create a general statistical overview of the observed characteristics. The number of individual ceramic objects in these selected and recorded collections, representing the given phase at the site, varies between 468 and 2992. A total of 42664 individual ceramic objects were recorded for the three regions (Supplementary 2).

In some sites, fewer than three sunken huts were available, so sampling had to be limited to fewer units. In other cases, it was impossible to sample sunken huts due to poor excavation documentation and restricted access to the artefacts. In these cases, other types of archaeological features were selected, or samples were taken directly without being accompanied by an evaluation of the macroscopic characteristics of the whole assemblages.

The initial evaluation phase was based on macroscopic analysis, wherein we focused solely on the basal characteristics of the phenomena relevant to the objectives of the study. From the dataset, ceramics were selected for more detailed description and further analysis. Of the 42664 registered individuals, 578 fragments were chosen for structural analysis to determine the forming techniques employed. The aim was to obtain at least ten samples of fine-grained wheel-made pottery per analytical unit for this analysis. Representatives of other ceramic classes were also selectively sampled.

Macroscopic analysis categories

Two basic variables were observed macroscopically: ceramic pastes and surface topography.

Classification of ceramic pastes

The classification of ceramic pastes is purposefully carried out into two general categories: fine and coarse ceramics. During macroscopic analysis, these categories can be quickly and reliably distinguished, as each possesses distinct physical properties that may require different approaches to shaping and subsequent stages of the technological process. La Tène wheel-made pottery is primarily associated with fine tableware, creating a more pronounced distinction between these material classes compared to other periods. The most notable dichotomy is observed in the LT B2 - LT D1 phases. Late Hallstatt and early La Tène ceramics exhibit less discontinuity between pastes regarding particle size distribution and the proportion of non-plastic components. Consequently, this results in less clear boundaries between fine and coarse ceramics, leading to more significant uncertainty during macroscopic differentiation. Nonetheless, in the context of the La Tène period, we generally consider this distinction significant in terms of the living culture, i.e., reflecting the potters' perception of the distinctiveness of pottery masses.

The defined classes are:

Fine pottery - Ceramics manufactured from materials without a macroscopically observable aplastic component or with an admixture of fine-grained sands in fractions up to 1 mm. Occasionally, larger grains may appear in the mass (Fig. 2:a-d).

Coarse pottery - Other pottery that does not meet the criteria for fine pottery (Fig. 2:e-h).

Graphite pottery - Within the category of coarse pottery, we further distinguish a specific type known as pottery tempered with graphite-rich rocks. In terms of the organisation of pottery production, this material is of interest due to its limited sources in the Czech Republic, making the production of graphite pottery dependent on a broader distribution network of raw materials. Graphite pottery is thus associated with specialised pottery production (Thér and Mangel 2014 with further references).

Surface topography and morphology classification

The surface topography was examined to determine whether or not a rotational movement was used during the forming. Two phenomena were observed: the evenness of the surface in terms of the presence of local deviations from the ideal shape of the object and morphological traces (traction lines, grooves) indicating the application of continuous pressure on the vessel wall, made possible by the use of rotational motion. Based on these characteristics, the following three categories were defined:

Hand-build pottery (HB) - Based on macroscopic observations, a rotational motion was not used in any forming phase (Fig. 3a).

Wheel-made pottery (WM) - Based on macroscopic observations, rotational motion was used in at least the final forming phase (Fig. 3c). The use of rotational motion is indicated by horizontal to diagonal traction striations, grooves or facets created by lifting the vessel wall during the throwing, evening of the surface with a potter's blade, smoothing, and polishing (Fig. 4). These traces can occur without rotation, which is why their straightness (consistent direction) and uniformity in the case of multiple traces are important. The term wheel-made implies the use of a potter's wheel. However, in the given analysis phase, we cannot provide any more specific information about how rotational motion was utilised. We cannot determine what kind of rotational device was used. We cannot even be sure whether the device or the potter's hand was rotating (Thér et al. 2015a). The more accurate term would be pottery produced using rotational motion. Nevertheless, with this terminological clarification, we choose to use the established term wheel-made for better text readability.

Unspecified pottery (U) - Based on macroscopic observations, it is impossible to determine whether rotational motion was used during the forming. In these cases, clear evidence of rotational motion (horizontal traction lines and grooves) is absent, but the surface is well-evened (Fig. 3b). An evened surface is a natural consequence of applying continuous pressure to the vessel wall during rotation. However, it can also be achieved without using rotational motion, albeit with a more significant investment of time in the final shaping phase. Therefore, we consider this phenomenon symptomatic of using rotational motion but not directly indicative of this technique. We approach this category more critically than most archaeologists studying La Tène pottery in Central Europe, who consider it evidence for the use of a potter's wheel. Nonetheless, we still perceive this category as a technological phenomenon that indicates, if not the specific technique, at least the forming style. This category does not imply a purely negative absence of characteristics that could determine the technology. However, it is essential to note that smaller fragments are also classified in this way, where the size of the preserved fragment surface primarily limits the decision on the application of rotational motion. We can assume that, if a larger surface area were preserved, it would be possible to make a definitive decision regarding the use of rotational motion for a more significant number of smaller fragments.

Further macroscopically observable diagnostic features that would allow for the determination of more specific details regarding the employed techniques were not examined. These features can only be observed in a small proportion of pottery fragments, and the results would not apply to an overall statistical characterisation of the assemblages. Given the detailed structural analysis in the study's second phase, we do not consider their use beneficial.

Technological categories defined on the basis of structural analysis

The analysis relies on a recently developed quantitative analytical technique based on a single diagnostic feature: the orientation of components within the ceramic body. This feature can be observed and measured on each ceramic fragment, providing a consistent basis for analysis. (Thér 2016; Thér and Toms 2016, 2021). This quantitative approach for analysing the orientation enhances the analysis of preferred orientation by delineating intervals of orientation variability for each specific forming technique and their combinations. To validate the theoretical assumptions regarding the relationship between individual forming methods and orientation patterns (Rye 1981; Carr 1990; Courty and Roux 1995; Pierret 1995; Whitbread 1996; Middleton 2005; Livingstone Smith 2007; Berg 2008b), we analysed multiple experimental collections.

We applied this methodology to estimate the contribution of rotational movement in pottery-forming and to identify the forming techniques used to form the initial segments or rough out the vessel. For this purpose, tangential sections are the most significant (Thér and Toms 2016). In this study, we rely only on these sections to minimise the destructive impact of the analysis on the archaeological ceramics. The entire area of the thin section was recorded at a magnification of 200x using a Keyence VHX6000 digital microscope. The resultant images have a resolution of 1.11 µm. The analysis followed a published methodology (Thér, 2016; Thér and Toms, 2016). The components of the ceramic materials were extracted using automatic area measurement tools available in the Keyence VHX6000 measurement software. The range of threshold values chosen to separate objects was based primarily on colour saturation, which shows the best results for the thin sections with uneven thickness (resulting in uneven brightness of the captured image).

Two basic measurements were selected to express the orientation of the extracted object: (a) the mean direction – average orientation of objects based on determination of the angle between the major axis of the object's secondary moment and the horizontal axis (0–180°, clockwise), and (b) the circular standard deviation (CSD) – the dispersion of the values from the average value (Fisher 1993; Mardia and Jupp 2000). The values were plotted in a polar diagram (for the explanation of a polar diagram see Thér and Toms 2016). To make the plots more readable, samples with a CSD of more than 50° (which usually means a random orientation) are plotted on a line defining a CSD of 50°.

After the current refinement of the analysis (using only highly elongated voids and particles, weighing the length of the objects), the delimited zone of the typical values for wheel-thrown pottery is the mean directions deviating from the horizontal axis by 10–45° and a CSD up to 20°. We consider these intervals to be a focal area of the orientation typical for wheel throwing, but this does not mean that every sample located outside this zone was not wheel-thrown and vice versa. The fundamental limitation of this method is that it provides information on the orientation only within a limited surface area of the sample. Particularly in cases of combined forming methods, such a small area may not accurately represent the overall structure of the material. Also, the deviations from optimal process performance (insufficient skills of the manufacturer, complicated shapes requiring further significant transformation of the object beyond the initial lifting of the basic shape) can cause deviations from typical values, as has been shown in the experimental samples (Thér and Toms 2016).

Therefore, we supplemented the analysis of thin sections with X-ray imaging and CT reconstruction of complete fragments (either one or the other imaging technique was employed for each sample with a measured orientation). These imaging techniques allowed us to verify whether the computed orientation corresponded to the overall character of the structure and further supplement the orientation analysis with the identification of additional structural phenomena, especially discontinuities caused by joining of the segments from which the vessel was assembled (Fig. 5, 6).

X-ray images were acquired using an X-ray generator using a lamp with a focal spot of 0.05 mm at a voltage of 120 kV and a current of 160 µA (obtained on the X-ray device Explorer X test 200 − 120/400 by Testima). Each CT reconstruction was based on 600 RTG images (acquired with the same settings as single X-ray images). CT reconstructions were created using the LometomArk software provided with the X-ray device mentioned above. The resolution of the resulting CT reconstructions varied depending on the size (ranging between 55 and 120 µm).

In combination with the results of macroscopic analysis, the following categories were differentiated:

Wheel-finished pottery (WF) - Based on macroscopic observation, a rotational motion was most probably used (WM and U categories of macroscopic observation). Nonetheless, the material structure does not exhibit significant transformation as a result of the use of RKE (Fig. 6c,f,h). This combination is characteristic for ceramics where rotational motion was employed solely for surface finishing and shape correction.

Wheel-shaped pottery (WS) - The structure of the clay mass shows significant transformation resulting from using RKE. The orientation is similar to that of WT. Nonetheless, we observed poorer alignment as a result of the transformation from the structure corresponding to the primary forming technique to the structure corresponding to the use of RKE. In addition, structural discontinuities can occur in the ceramic body. A particularly characteristic feature is the discontinuity between the base and the lower part of the vessel wall (Fig. 5a,b; 6d). Such features are typical of pottery, where rotational motion was employed during the shaping phase, leading to wall thinning and substantial changes in the overall vessel shape.

Wheel-thrown pottery (WT) - The alignment of the structure (strongly oriented diagonal structure in tangential section) and the absence of discontinuities in the structure indicate that the entire forming process was executed using RKE (Fig. 5d; 6e).

In some cases, uncertainty may arise in distinguishing between WS and WT. Sections of WS ceramics may exhibit a similar degree of directionality as WT, and discontinuities may not be apparent. Therefore, for evaluating an assemblage, statistical characterisation of the entire sample set is crucial, and reveals fundamental trends in the forming techniques.

Clockwise rotation (...-cw) - Most of WM production at the WS and WT levels was carried out with counterclockwise rotation. However, there are instances where clockwise rotation is observed (Fig. 5b). The "-cw" suffix indicates these cases.

Coiling (C) – A horizontal orientation of structures identifies the technique in the tangential sections and omnidirectional on the radial sections (inspected on CT reconstructions), influenced by how individual segments (coils) are incorporated into the vessel wall. We can expect residues of horizontal joints between the coils (Fig. 6b,c), although these joints may not always be preserved.

Discontinuous perpendicular pressure techniques (DPP) - This designation encompasses a broad category of techniques involving discontinuous perpendicular pressure on the vessel wall or the formed segment from which the vessel is assembled. This category includes techniques like pinching, slab-building, or pressing into a mould. All of these techniques exhibit a similar orientation of the structure, distinct from the coiling technique: omnidirectional in the tangential section and parallel to the wall margins in the radial section (Fig. 5c, 6f,g). The critical evidence lies in the presence or absence of joints between segments to differentiate between specific techniques within this category (Fig. 6g). However, this evidence is rare. Therefore, techniques within this category are generally classified as those employing discontinuous perpendicular pressure without further specification, acknowledging that, in regular pottery production, pinching, for instance, where the entire vessel is formed from a single piece, is unlikely. This technique can be effectively utilised only for small vessels. The most probable construction technique within this group is slab-building.

Transformed coils (TC) - From a structural perspective, this technique represents a hybrid of the previous two. It is characterised by thick coils that undergo significant transformation through discontinuous perpendicular pressure when incorporated into the vessel wall. The resulting structure typically retains a predominant horizontal orientation in the tangential section but with smaller alignment. Alternation of horizontal zones at the junctions between coils and omnidirectional to vertical zones at the cores of the original coils can be observed (Fig. 6a). Consequently, in a thin section that captures only a small portion of the structure, this technique may be manifested in a relatively strong horizontal orientation and a random to vertical orientation. It is essential to observe structural discontinuities over larger surface areas of the samples (using X-ray or CT scanning). As a result of these phenomena, the use of this technique in the assemblages is underestimated.

Combinations of application levels of the potter's wheel and hand-building techniques can be confirmed (e.g. WS-C, WF-DPP) only where these combinations can be documented. This is particularly characteristic of WF, where the structure in the wall core remains untransformed by rotational motion, fully corresponding to the primary forming technique.

Central part of Central Bohemia

The general results of the analyses are presented in Figs. 7 and 8. Data are available in Supplementary 2 and 3.

LT A

Praha-Křeslice (KRE; Fig. 9a) Fine ceramics constitute 19% of the total assemblage. It was not possible to macroscopically determine whether rotational motion was used in most of this pottery. None of the sherds showed clear signs of it but, on the other hand, only three per cent of the fine ceramics could exclude the use of rotational motion. Most ceramics (68%, including all HB samples) exhibit a random orientation on a tangential section without signs of structural discontinuity corresponding to DPP techniques. However, a significant group also revealed the structural characteristics of C (26% of fine ceramics). In contrast to the previous group, we observed a more pronounced orientational transformation by rotational movement corresponding to WS in all these cases. None of the recorded coarse ceramics showed evidence of the use of rotational motion and, in 97% of cases, the use of rotational motion could be excluded.

Praha-Pitkovice (PIT; Fig. 9b) Fine ceramics constitute 24% of the assemblage. Of these, 21% are HB, with only a few cases showing clear traces of the use of rotational motion. It is impossible to determine this unequivocally in most of the fine ceramics (77%). Methods combining C with the use of rotational motion constitute 43% of the fine ceramics, including both WF and WS. In two cases, WT was determined based on orientation analysis. Three samples (12% of the fine ceramics assemblage) were formed using clockwise rotation. In two cases of HB ceramics, we observed a transformed horizontal structure combined with evidence of horizontal joints between segments, indicating the use of TC. Another significant group of fine ceramics (25%) consists of fragments with evidence of the use of DPP. All the coarse ceramics were formed without rotational motion.

Libčice-Chýnov (LIB; Fig. 9c) Fine ceramics constitute 23% of the assemblage. Compared to the previous two sites, we find a significantly higher proportion of fine HB ceramics (43% of the fine ceramics assemblage). In this case, the high proportion of HB ceramics may be due to the presence of ceramics from an older settlement phase (Ha D2-3), which cannot be distinguished from LT A ceramics in many less shape-specific cases. Fine ceramics show considerable diversity in forming methods. Methods based on C and DPP are present. In some cases, TC is documented. In half the cases where we consider rotational motion, the structural transformation extends to WS. Ceramic formed in a clockwise direction also plays a significant role in the assemblage. All coarse ceramics were formed without using rotational motion. While DPP dominates fine HB ceramics, there are frequent traces of CS in the coarse ceramics.

Lhota u Dolních Břežan-Závist (ZAV; Fig. 9d) We did not calculate the statistics of the basic macroscopically observed ceramic classes. Due to the state of documentation of the collection items, it was impossible to systematically sample selected contexts. Sampling was therefore conducted randomly to ensure a representative sample for detailed technological analysis. Given these circumstances, we extensively sampled several locations within the fortified area. In particular, fine pottery was sampled, for which we anticipate the possible use of rotational motion but, as is common with LT A pottery, this cannot be directly documented by macroscopic observation in most cases. The collection was supplemented with three samples of coarse pottery. The majority of fine ceramics mostly exhibit random orientation without signs of rotational motion-induced transformation. One fragment with stamped decoration with an orientation indicating WS is an exception. Three samples of coarse ceramics contain representatives of both C and DPP techniques.

LT B2-C1

Praha-Běchovice (BECH; Fig. 9e). Fine ceramics constitute 20% of the assemblage. HB ceramics are absent in this category, while the proportion of WM pottery is high (69%). All coarse ceramics were formed without rotational motion. The assemblage includes WT ceramics. Its proportion is estimated at approximately 20%. The combined methods are based on C.

Praha-Hostavice (HST; Fig. 9f) The proportion of fine ceramics in the sampled assemblages (39%) significantly exceeds the usual amount. This anomaly is caused by the specific composition of the ceramic assemblage from obj. 1/88, which contained 72.7% fine ceramics. In the interpretation, N. Venclová (2008) considers this situation as a potential indication of a non-standard (one-time?) event (e.g. banquet) or as an expression of the status of the respective household in the local community. The use of rotational motion predominates in the fine ceramics (94%) and there are no HB samples. The estimated proportion of WT is 13%. The combined methods are based on C. All coarse ceramics were manufactured without using rotational motion.

Hostivice (HOS; Fig. 9g) 24% of the assemblage consisted of fine ceramics. Most fine ceramics show traces of using rotational motion. Fine HB ceramics are present in exceptional cases. Most coarse ceramics were made without using rotational motion, with only two exceptions. The proportion of WT within fine ceramics equals 27%. TC is the primary technique used in the forming of coarse ceramics. This technique is present in both coarse WM and HB pottery groups. The use of rotational motion did not result in significant structural transformation in WM ceramics. WM fine ceramics also show more significant deviations from the horizontal plane than BECH and HST, indicating a more extensive use of DPP in the primary shaping of WM pottery.

Holubice (HOL; Fig. 9h) 24%. Of the assemblage consists of fine ceramics. Compared to the previous LT B2-C1 sites, a significantly smaller proportion of the use of rotational motion (24%) and a higher proportion of HB ceramics (9%) were observed in the fine ceramics. Only one sample was identified as WT, based on orientation analysis. The primary method used for WM ceramics is a combined method using C for primary shaping. In coarse ceramics, a larger but still marginal proportion of WM pottery is present (3%).

LT C2-D1

Praha-Běchovice (BECH; Fig. 10a) 13% of the assemblage consisted of fine ceramics Fine HB ceramics are absent. It can be stated that rotational motion was used in the production of the vast majority of fine ceramics (91%). On the other hand, with few exceptions, rotational motion was not used in the production of coarse ceramics. 70% of the analysed fine ceramics assemblage is composed of WT pottery.

Prague-Hostavice (HST; Fig. 10b) 12% of the assemblage consisted of fine pottery. Fine HB pottery is absent. As in the previous assemblage, WM pottery predominates (95%) among the fine ceramics. It also sporadically appears in coarse pottery. WT pottery constitutes 78% of the analysed fine pottery.

Prague-Křeslice (KRE; Fig. 10c) The proportion of fine pottery is very low (6%). The fragmentary state of fine ceramics often prevents macroscopic assessment of the use of rotational motion. Therefore, the absence of WM pottery in the fine pottery assemblage is considered misleading and cannot be compared with other sampled sites from the same period in the region. Due to the fragmentary state, it was also impossible to sample fine pottery for detailed technological analysis. The sampling, therefore, focused on coarse pottery and yielded interesting findings. A small but notable proportion of WM pottery (7%) is found in coarse pottery. A significant portion of the studied assemblage (3 out of 7 samples) exhibits characteristics of WT pottery. The rest corresponds to the TC technique without significant rotational motion-induced transformation.

Prague-Pitkovice (PIT; Fig. 10d) The proportion of fine pottery is also very low for PIT (5%). HB pottery is absent. 91% of fine pottery exhibits the orientational characteristics of WT. A small amount of coarse pottery documented the use of rotational motion. Technological analysis of these samples revealed the presence of production exhibiting a greater degree of transformation (WS) and samples with random orientation without rotational motion-induced transformation were also found.

Hostivice (HOS; Fig. 10e) 10% of the studied assemblage corresponded to fine pottery. HB pottery is absent. 60% of fine pottery exhibits the orientational characteristics of WT. The remaining fraction was attributed to the method utilising C for initial forming in combination with WS. In coarse pottery, a more significant proportion of WM pottery is observed (6%). Technological analysis was conducted on five samples of this pottery. Two of them exhibit the characteristics of WT while, in other cases, combined methods with more pronounced rotational motion-induced transformation were identified (WS).

Holubice (HOL; Fig. 10f) 6% of the sample corresponded to fine pottery. HB pottery is absent in this class. 83% of the fine pottery exhibits the orientational characteristics of WT. This LT C2-D1 assemblage is exceptional and has the highest proportion of WM coarse pottery (13%). Of the 7 sampled coarse pottery fragments, two exhibit the characteristics of WT, while WS was indicated for the other samples.

Lhota u Dolních Břežan-Závist (ZAV; Fig. 10g) We did not estimate the statistics of the basic macroscopically observed ceramic classes (for a further explanation, see ZAV in the LT A-B1 subchapter). Fine ceramics form two groups with significantly different uses of rotational motion. The predominant group consists of WT pottery formed in a counterclockwise direction. This pottery accounts for 67% of the sampled fine pottery and corresponds to the basic method of fine pottery forming at other LT C2-D1 sites in the region. However, we also found fine pottery with relatively low structural alignment but statistically significant orientation corresponding to clockwise rotation. This group represents 19% of the fine pottery assemblage. WT pottery is also strongly represented within the sampled coarse pottery (31% of the coarse pottery samples, although only WM coarse pottery was sampled). The second group consists of pottery with random orientation on tangential sections, corresponding to DPP techniques without significant rotational motion-induced transformation (WF).

Eastern edge of Central Bohemia

LT A

Kanín (KAN; Fig. 11a) Fine pottery represents 34% of the assemblage. We encountered a large proportion of ceramics for this period, for which the use of rotational movement can be confidently confirmed (in 12% of the fine ceramics). Coarse pottery shows no signs of the use of rotational motion. The analysis revealed considerable variability in the employed forming methods. C and DPP techniques were employed for both coarse and fine pottery. Rotational motion-induced transformations indicate both counterclockwise and clockwise rotations. No orientation typical for WT was observed.

LT C2-D1

Týnec nad Labem (TYN; Fig. 11b) Fine pottery constitutes 16% of the assemblage and all the fragments show signs of the use of rotational motion. Apart from two exceptions, all the samples exhibit the characteristics typical for WT. All the samples of coarse pottery (whether or not they exhibited the use of rotational motion) were made using the same primary technique (TC), and, if rotational motion was used, it had minimal impact on the structure of the ceramic body.

Northwest Bohemia

LT A

Soběsuky (SOB; Fig. 12a) Fine pottery constitutes 15% of the assemblage. 18% of fine pottery unequivocally corresponds to HB. Clear traces of the use of rotational motion were found in exceptional cases. Most of the pottery was formed using C. More than half of the potentially WM samples exhibit significant transformation due to rotational motion corresponding to WS. There is no evidence of the use of rotational motion in the coarse pottery.

Pohlody (POH; Fig. 12b) Fine pottery constitutes 14% of the assemblage, with 8% HB pottery. Macroscopic evidence for the use of rotational motion was observed only rarely. Both C and DPP techniques are documented as initial forming techniques, where DPP techniques had a more significant representation (50%:25%, in the remaining cases, this cannot be decided). Half of the potentially WM samples exhibit significant transformation due to the use of rotational motion corresponding to WS. There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

LT B2-C1

Soběsuky (SOB; Fig. 12c) Fine pottery constitutes 13% of the assemblage. The proportion of WM pottery evidently increases (21% of fine pottery) in this chronological phase. However, a high proportion of HB pottery (22%) still persists. TC is documented as the primary technique for WM pottery, but a significant portion of the sampled WM pottery consists of WT pottery (57%). Based on several analysed samples, it can be assumed that fine HB pottery with evidence for DPP techniques differs from WM pottery in the primary forming stage. There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

LT C2-D1

Soběsuky (SOB; Fig. 12d) Fine pottery constitutes 21% of the assemblage. In the final settlement phase, pottery with evident traces of the use of rotational motion comprises most of the fine pottery assemblage (65%). HB fine pottery is present in a small but not negligible quantity (10%). Most of the sampled WM pottery consists of WT pottery (63%). The remaining samples exhibit significant transformations due to the use of rotational motion. Both fine and coarse HB pottery were formed using DPP/TC techniques. There is virtually no evidence for WM coarse pottery, although there are some exceptions.

Pohlody (POH; Fig. 12e) Fine pottery represents 27% of the assemblage. However, 68% of this relatively high proportion of fine ware consists of fine HB pottery. This high proportion of HB fine pottery is attributed to a specific category – larger vessels with taller shapes with smoothed decorations in the form of irregular arches. This so-called grey micaceous pottery is typical for the Central Ohře River region (or NW Bohemia), with its beginnings in LT C1 but more pronounced occurrence in LT C2-D1 (Venclová 2001). WT pottery represents only 36% of the sampled WM pottery. The remaining samples show combined methods with varying degrees of rotational motion-induced transformation (WS comprises 50% of the entire WM fine pottery assemblage). C predominates either in fine and coarse pottery.

Lovosice (LOV; Fig. 12f) With 41% of the fine pottery, LOV exhibits the greatest proportion of fine ware among all the assemblages dated to LT C2-D1. It can be attributed to the fact that the pottery assemblages originate from a pottery kiln complex or archaeological contexts in its immediate vicinity. Unusually high proportions of fine (or otherwise technologically specific) ware have also been documented in relation to pottery kilns at other sites (Szabó 2007; Dulęba and Kosicki 2017; Mangel and Thér 2017; Mangel et al. 2021). Such assemblages are most commonly interpreted as remnants of production waste dumps near production facilities. Therefore, the composition of the assemblages from Lovosice may be biased by the presence of a production unit of fine tableware. The majority of fine pottery bears direct traces of the use of rotational motion (56%), with exceptional cases of HB pottery (2%), in a significantly smaller proportion compared to the other sampled sites in NW Bohemia. 85% of the sampled WM fine pottery was identified as WT, with the remainder representing combined methods incorporating C for primary forming.

Western Bohemia

LT A

Plzeň-Roudná (ROU; Fig. 13a) Fine pottery represents 37% of the assemblage. Most of the fine ceramics consist of HB pottery (67%). Directly observable evidence for the use of rotational motion is very sporadic. A significant rotational motion-induced transformation was not observed. Forming of potentially WM pottery is exclusively based on the DPP techniques, such as a portion of the HB fine pottery. In addition, there is a distinct tradition of C pottery exclusively associated with both fine and coarse HB pottery (this group constitutes 28% of the sampled assemblage). There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

Líně (LIN; Fig. 13b) Fine pottery represents 43% of the assemblage. Unlike ROU, in most cases we cannot macroscopically determine whether rotational motion was used or not (86% of fine pottery). The proportion of pottery with clear evidence for the use of rotational motion is also much larger (13%). However, technological analysis mostly indicates the same forming method of forming as for ROU, i.e., DPP-based primary technique without significant rotational motion-induced transformation (85% of fine potentially WM pottery). The difference in the proportion of HB pottery could be attributed to different styles of potters who used the same forming method. There is no evidence for WM coarse pottery.

Mašovice (MAS; Fig. 13c) Fine pottery represents 17% of the assemblage. Over 30% of the fine pottery assemblage consists of pottery with evidence for the use of rotational motion. This is an unusually high proportion for the pottery of this chronological phase. Most of the WM fine pottery exhibits a similar method as the dominant technological groups of WM pottery from the previous two sites in the region, i.e., DPP (55%). However, C is also significantly represented (18%). There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

LT B-C1

Úherce u Nýřan (UHE; Fig. 13d) Fine pottery represents 15% of the assemblage. Half of the fine pottery assemblage consists of evidently WM pottery. Within the potentially WM pottery, WT, WS, and WF were identified in roughly the same proportions. The primary HB technique is C, also observed in one analysed sample of coarse pottery. There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

Plzeň-Valcha (VAL; Fig. 13e) Fine pottery represents 17% of the assemblage. Half of the fine pottery assemblage consists of HB pottery. Clear evidence for the use of rotational motion is found for 35% of the fine ceramics. WT was identified in only two cases. The remaining WM pottery represents a combined method based on C. HB pottery was also manufactured using C. There is no evidence for the use of rotational motion for the coarse pottery.

LT C2-D1

Nýřany (NYR; Fig. 13f) Fine pottery represents 25% of the assemblage. Evidence for the use of rotational motion was found in 67% of the fine pottery, but a significant proportion of HB pottery (18%) also was also found. The main group of WM pottery is WS pottery (47%), with a significant representation of WT (41%), and marginally WF pottery with the use of C (12%). The fine pottery is supplemented (26%) by pottery manufactured using DPP techniques. This includes both HB pottery and WM pottery.

Oplot (OPL; Fig. 13g) Fine pottery represents 38% of the assemblage. The use of rotational motion can be excluded in 59% of fine pottery. The relatively high proportion of this pottery is due to the preference for using fine-grained materials to manufacture larger bowls with an in-turned rim, which is not standard for this period. 35% of the fine pottery exhibits clear evidence of the use of rotational motion. Analysis of the WM ceramics showed equal proportions (42%) of WT and WS. The rest consists of WF pottery. With few exceptions, C was the primary forming technique for WM and HB pottery.

Synthesis

Trends that distinguish Central Bohemia sites[1] from NW and W Bohemia in the proportion of fine pottery can be observed. In the former region, we observed an approximately 1/4 − 1/3 proportion of fine pottery in the assemblages of the first two phases, which decreased significantly in the last phase. This trend corresponds to the disappearance of HB fine pottery dated from the LT B2-C1 phase. In NW and W Bohemia, on the other hand, no clear trend can be observed, and the data obtained from individual sites cannot be averaged due to significant differences in the proportion of fine pottery among them. These are determined by the presence of some specific pottery traditions or by the specificity of the sites. In contrast to Central Bohemia, HB fine pottery did not disappear in the later phases of the La Tène period. However, even in this aspect, the picture in NW and W Bohemia is not uniform. On some sites, the proportion of HB pottery is marginal (SOB, LOV, UHE) while, in others, it forms a significant portion of the fine pottery (POH, NYR, VAL, OPL). In these cases, fine-grained ceramic material was used to produce goods that elsewhere would have been made from coarse-grained materials (e.g. large bowls with in-turned rims, storage jars and large pots). In Central Bohemia, the fine-grained material is exclusively used for WM pottery during the LT C2-D1 phase and its proportion in production was relatively low compared to other phases and regions.

In the LT A phase, when pottery manufactured with the use of rotational motion first appears; only in sporadic cases do we encounter diagnostic features that do not allow us to rule out the use of WT. Specifically, this holds for two samples from the PIT site. Given that (a) these are isolated cases and (b) based solely on orientation with the absence of evidence for structural discontinuities, the use of a combined forming methods cannot be conclusively ruled out, and therefore, definitive conclusions cannot be made regarding the appearance of the WT in this period, albeit sporadically. Nevertheless, it is interesting that exceptional evidence for pottery potentially made on a potter's wheel appears precisely at a site with remarkable evidence for Mediterranean ceramic imports (Trefný 2011; Trefný and Polišenský 2014). This leads to the hypothesis that the site represents one of the centres of innovation, benefiting from contact with advanced Mediterranean society and possessing sufficient resources to invest in costly innovations. In the case of WT pottery, it is primarily a matter of providing material resources for producers who require a long learning period to master the production technique and intensive production to maintain skills at an adequate level. This hypothesis is further supported by other evidence for long-distance contacts and specialised production activities associated with metalworking, which directly come from the PIT site or other settlements in the Pitkovice micro-region, indicating the supra-regional significance and central role of the area (Trefný and Polišenský 2019; Trefný et al. 2020).

Regional differences in the extent of the use of rotational movement and specific characteristics of individual sites were observed for the LT A phase. While Central and NW Bohemia show that approximately half of the WM production was significantly transformed by the use of rotational motion (the proportion of WS in Central Bohemia without ZAV is around 48%, in KAN 42%, and in NW Bohemia 53%), in west Bohemia, the proportion is significantly lower (average 18%).

In Central Bohemia, ZAV represents an exception, where out of 18 samples of WM pottery, only one exhibited noticeable structural transformation due to the use of rotational motion. ZAV represents a significant supra-regional central site with long-term development from the Ha D2 phase (Motyková et al. 1984; Drda and Rybová 2008). Its extensive fortified area with evidence for long-distance contacts and stone podiums built in the early LT A phase under the influence of southern building practices constitutes an exceptional phenomenon that can be understood as a Central Bohemian counterpart of the elite environment manifestations in Southwestern Bohemia, where it is manifested in the form of burials with two-wheeled wagons, which have been present since the HD 3/LT A phase (Chytráček 2012), as well as in numerous Late Hallstatt hillforts (Chytráček and Metlička 2004; Chytráček et al. 2010). From this point of view, it is interesting to note the similarity of technological phenomena observed on pottery from ZAV and W Bohemia. W Bohemian assemblages are technologically more similar to ZAV than Central Bohemian sites. We are not able to demonstrate this interesting connection with additional elements of the material culture. Nonetheless, it can be supposed that these phenomena represent the same socio-cultural tradition, distinct from the typical early La Tène expressions in Central Bohemia. In this case, this suggests that no technological progress in pottery production is associated with the manifestations of elites in W Bohemia during the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène periods. The extent of the use of rotational movement lags significantly behind that in Central and NW Bohemia.

On some sites in Central Bohemia, we observed the presence of pottery manufactured using clockwise rotation in the LT A phase. In LIB and KAN, this pottery accounted for approximately half of the WS pottery; in PIT, it accounted for a quarter. Clockwise rotation associated with WS is also predominant in the Chrudim region in the LT A phase (Thér et al. 2017). It has not been observed in the other sampled regions and disappears in all the regions in the following period (LT B2-C1). The presence of clockwise rotation in the LT C2-D1 stage at ZAV is unique among all the sampled regions.

Let us return to the proportion of different levels of the use of rotational motion. In the LT B2-C1 phase, we can already observe a clear presence of WT pottery. Central and W Bohemia show similarly lower proportions of WT pottery (21% in Central Bohemia, 25% in W Bohemia). These regions differ mainly in the proportions of WF and WS pottery. In W Bohemia, 39% of WM pottery does not exhibit any significant structural transformation due to the use of rotational movement (WF) while, in Central Bohemia, WF was used only marginally (6%). In this phase, SOB exhibited an exceptional proportion of WT pottery (57%). SOB is the only site in NW Bohemia from which samples from this chronological phase have been obtained. Therefore, we do not know whether the high proportion of WT pottery represents an anomaly or reflects more general trends in the region. In the final phase of the La Tène period, LT C2-D1, WT pottery predominates in the assemblages in Central Bohemia (73%). The lowest proportion is found in W Bohemia (41%), with a significantly higher proportion of WF pottery (28%) compared to Central Bohemia (9%). Two high proportions of WT pottery are associated with important (supra)regional centres. TYN (89% of fine WM pottery is WT) on the eastern edge of Central Bohemia represents a settlement at the foot of castellum in Kolo near Týnec nad Labem (Militký and Beneš 2016; Beneš 2020). LOV (85% of fine WM pottery is WT) was part of a settlement agglomeration that played a specific role as a production and distribution centre (Salač 1991; Mangel and Thér 2018). However, the high proportion of WT pottery could be caused by the presence of a pottery kiln. Higher proportions of WT pottery have been repeatedly documented in relation to pottery kiln complexes in other cases (comprehensively Mangel and Thér 2017). The production waste of a specific production unit may influence the assemblage composition. In other cases where the evidence of production units in spatial proximity to the selected archaeological situations is absent, the assemblages most likely reflect the consumer spectrum of ceramics.

When evaluating the variability of primary forming techniques used in the production of HB and WM pottery formed by combined methods, it is necessary to critically consider the obtained data, as many assemblages focused on WM pottery do not provide representative data (especially in the later phases, where WT often predominates, and there is also a significant proportion of WS pottery without specification of the primary forming technique). However, basic trends and anomalies can be identified. In the LT A phase, Central Bohemian sites exhibit a mixture of primary techniques reflecting the variability of methods used by local potters. For example, KRE and PIT are settlements about 3 km apart, yet only a quarter of analysed samples from KRE exhibit the use of C while, in PIT, this is 67%. Once again, ZAV represents an exception, where most samples show evidence for DPP techniques (89%). In this regard, ZAV is similar to sites in W Bohemia, where DPP techniques significantly predominate at all the sampled LT A sites (with an average proportion of 80% in the region). A high proportion of C was observed at the sites in NW Bohemia (50%) and reaches its highest proportion in the easternmost sampled LT A assemblage from KAN. The trend is consistent with our findings in the Chrudim region, where C was the basic primary HB technique throughout the La Tène period. A substantial decline in DPP techniques was generally observed in the LT B2-C1 phase, with a milder persistence in the final phase (overall proportion of C in all regions: LT A − 36%, LT B2-C1–91%, LT C2-D1–64%). The most contrasting situation is in W Bohemia, where the proportion of C (including the TC variant) increases from 20% in the LT A phase to 94% in the LT B2-C1 phase. In contrast, there are no significant changes in the overall proportions observed in southwest Bohemia (with approximately half of the pottery manifesting C techniques). However, in the LT C2-D1 phase, there are significant differences among the individual sites. In LOV and POH, C predominates whereas, in SOB, C is absent (the proportion of C gradually decreases during the La Tène period). Another exception in the LT C2-D1 phase is ZAV, where DPP pottery accounts for half of the sampled pottery with a specified primary technique.

Coarse pottery did not receive detailed attention in this study. Nevertheless, some findings interestingly complement the analysis of fine pottery. Apart from the Central Bohemian region, the use of rotational motion for coarse pottery is a marginal phenomenon in all phases of the La Tène period. In Central Bohemia, however, we observed a significant increase in the proportion of pottery for which we are at least uncertain whether rotational motion was used in its production. For coarse pottery in Central Bohemia, a gradual increase in the regularising of the vessel surfaces can be observed, culminating in the LT C2-D1 phase. This trend primarily affects pots and bowls with in-turned rims, which are often roughened on the outer surface by scraping with a blade held perpendicularly to the surface in the leather-hard stage of drying (referred to as grating or deep roughening, which was undoubtedly performed away from the potter's wheel). The inner surfaces of the vessels are well-regularised. Local styles of production were observed even for this pottery, causing a significantly higher proportion of pottery with the uncertainty use of rotational motion in some Central Bohemian sites during the LT B2-D1 phases than in other sites.[2] The difference in the technique/style of production at individual sites is also reflected in a significant average proportion of WM coarse pottery in Central Bohemian sites during the LT C2-D1 phase (5%). Additionally, a significant proportion of WT pottery (30%) within the sampled coarse WM pottery from the Central Bohemian was documented in this phase.

Finally, we considered a specific type of coarse pottery – graphite pottery. Due to its minimal representation in the recorded assemblages, we did not discuss graphite pottery at the level of individual sites but only in summary, excluding NW Bohemia, where graphite pottery was recorded only in isolated fragments. In contrast to the rest of the coarse pottery, graphite pottery shows a significant proportion of WM pottery from the LT B2-C1 phase onwards. Due to the size of the recorded graphite pottery assemblages, we did not comment on specific proportions. However, most graphite pottery in the later phases of the La Tène period was made using rotational motion, which contrasts significantly with the rest of the coarse pottery (Fig. 14). This conforms to the previous finding (e.g., Trebsche 2011; Thér and Mangel 2014).

Summary

LT A

- In the LT A phase, the use of rotational motion did not attain the level of WT in any of the regions, except for two samples from PIT. RKE was much more extensively used in pottery production in Central and NW Bohemia regions than in W Bohemia.

- There is considerable variability in the methods of pottery production observed at the individual sites in Central Bohemia that combine C and DPP techniques using rotational motion in both the clockwise and counterclockwise direction.

- The results from ZAV are more similar to the W Bohemian sites than the Central Bohemia sites (predominantly WF and DPP techniques).

- Pottery from the sites on the boundary between Central and Eastern Bohemia has a strong representation of the phenomena found to be dominant in the earlier analysis of La Tène pottery from eastern Bohemia (Chrudim region).

LT B2-C1

- Changes compared to the previous phase are substantial and, in some areas, discontinuous.

- In the LT B2-C1 phase, WT pottery regularly appeared in the assemblages of all regions. Its proportion within the WM pottery ranges around one-fourth, except for SOB, where it corresponds to more than half of the assemblage. SOB is the only site sampled in NW Bohemia, so that it cannot be determined whether this is a regional characteristic or specific to that particular site. In the assemblages from W Bohemia, most WM pottery does not exhibit signs of significant structural transformation by the use of rotational motion.

- Within the primary HB techniques of the LT B2-C1 phase, the dominance of C is evident in Central and W Bohemia. The HB techniques employed in the WM pottery production sequence are generally less variable than in the previous phase.

- Evidence for wheel rotation in the clockwise direction is absent in this phase. From this phase onwards, potter's wheels or other rotational devices used in pottery production uniformly rotated counterclockwise, corresponding to the findings in previously analysed regions.

- One tradition from the diverse spectrum of methods of the LT A phase prevailed in the LT B2-C1 phase in Central Bohemia while, in W Bohemia, the domination of the similar method represents a discontinuous change in primary forming techniques.

- Graphite pottery, in terms of the applied production methods, demonstrates a specific position within the production of coarse pottery and it corresponds to a large proportion of WM production from the LT B-C1 phase onwards across all the regions (except for NW Bohemia, where it is practically absent).

LT C2-D1

- Changes are gradual compared to the previous phase.

- In the LT C2-D1 phase, most WM pottery from the Central Bohemian region is WT, while the proportion of WT pottery remains significantly lower on average in W Bohemia.

- NW Bohemia exhibits significant variability between sites in the proportions of WT pottery and the utilization of primary forming techniques.

- In Central Bohemia, ZAV is again seen as an exceptional site. It exhibits a high proportion of DPP techniques and the presence of a unique tradition of combined methods using rotational motion in the clockwise direction.

- The high proportion of WT pottery in Central Bohemia is accompanied by the absence of fine HB pottery, a low proportion of fine tableware in the overall assemblages and the use of rotational motion in the production of coarse pottery, phenomena that are not observed in the W and NW Bohemia.

The specific development of the use of the potter's wheel in the studied regions demonstrates the expected links to local socio-economic conditions, as well as surprising findings that draw attention to the fact that the performance of the technology or resulting products are not subject to unilateral selection based on the criterion of economic efficiency.

The discussion focuses mainly on the results from Central and W Bohemia. The variable results obtained from fewer sites in NW Bohemia do not provide a clear picture of technological trends. This variability may be related to the heterogeneity in ceramic production within the region in terms of morphology and decoration, as noted by V. Salač (Salač 1990; Salač and Kubálek 2015), who identified three distinct ceramic areas within the region. Each sampled site belongs to a different area: SOB = Central Ohře River region, POH = Bílina region, LOV = Lower Ohře River region.

The anticipated results include the general evolution of the innovation in Central Bohemia. In this fertile region with dense settlements in all the observed periods and the emergence of several oppida in the LT C2-D1 period, we find considerable diversity in technological chains with a high representation of combined forming methods, accompanied by significant structural transformation caused by the use of rotational motion (WS) in the LT A period and the most pronounced signs of continuity in technological traditions. The transition from LT A to LT B leads to a reduction in technological diversity rather than discontinuous changes. It indicates a broad learning network of numerous producers. The WT method already gained significant prominence in LT B-C1 and predominated in LT C2-D1, especially in producing fine tableware, but it was also employed for coarse ware. The predominance of WT can be attributed to changes in the selective environment resulting from increased socio-economic complexity during the studied period. The results suggest the existence of independent specialists sensitive to cost-effective production practices. The estimated time required to produce typical La Tène bowls is approximately four times shorter when utilising WT compared to other WM methods (Thér et al. 2015b). The advantage of time efficiency, outweighing skill requirements, depends on its significance in a given socio-economic context measured by the costs associated with acquiring and maintaining the required skills. Therefore, the time efficiency of WT probably played a significant role in adopting this technique within environments where pottery production was carried out intensively and was essential for the livelihood of manufacturers. Such an environment is represented by a market primarily based on impersonal considerations of value determined by supply and demand. Under these circumstances, production efficiency became an essential factor for the success of potters and, consequently, a prerequisite for the imitation of their practices. The conditions for the division of labour in pottery production among households were established in densely settled Central Bohemia, with the concentration of oppida resulting from population nucleation across various social levels (for the discussion on the role of oppida, see Collis 1984, 1995; Brun 1995; Büchsenschütz 1995; Crumley 1995a; Wells 1995; Salač 1996; Venclová 2002; Augstein 2006; Danielisová 2011). The concentration of non-agricultural production within oppida is well-documented (Collis 1984; Venclová 2002), creating an extensive market and, consequently, a selective environment in which efficiency became a significant component of the cultural fitness of WT. The development of the use of the potter's wheel exhibits fundamental aspects similar to our previous findings in the Brno region in Moravia (Thér and Mangel 2021) but with more pronounced manifestations of central region characteristics, including a greater diversity of techniques during the LT A period and the utilization of WT for coarse ceramics during LT C2-D1.

In contrast, in the later phases of the La Tène period, W Bohemia represents a transitional periphery with agriculturally less suitable conditions and sparser settlements, lacking the presence of oppida. Correspondingly, there is a significantly lower representation of WT pottery in the LT C2-D1 assemblages. The presence of two-chamber pottery kilns, considered evidence for specialised production, would also suggest poorer conditions for specialisation in the pottery craft. So far, not a single example from W Bohemia has been documented while at least seven kilns from the LT B2-D1 have been found in Central Bohemia (Mangel and Thér 2018; Mangel et al. 2021).

As mentioned earlier, oppida represent the climax of socio-economic complexity in the late La Tène period and the concentration (in Central Bohemia) of pottery production in the region is assumed to reflect this. If this were the case, we would expect a significant proportion of WT pottery to exceed that of WT pottery found in common settlements. However, although this can be observed for other types of (supra)regional centres such as TYN and LOV, this is not the case in at least one sampled oppidum (ZAV). Therefore, oppida were more of a symptom of the region's socio-economic complexity rather than its culmination, indicating that the oppidum environment itself does not necessarily provide better conditions for specialisation in the pottery craft[3]. It is also supported once again by the occurrence of two-chamber pottery kilns. While they can be found in oppida, they are not concentrated to the extent indicating a concentration of specialised pottery production (Mangel and Thér 2018). However, definitive answers to this question can be provided only through research explicitly focused on the differences between oppida and common settlements in the region. The current dataset includes only one oppidum.

W Bohemia is considered to be a peripheral region during the later phases of the La Tène period. However, this is not true for the end of the Hallstatt period and the beginning of the La Tène period, as significant manifestations of elites can be observed in this region (Chytráček 1983, 2000, 2012; Bašta et al. 1989; Chytráček and Metlička 2004; Kozáková et al. 2016; Trefný 2017). In our previous study, which interpreted the results from another predominantly peripheral area, the Chrudim region, we argued the hypothesis that elites were the key initiators of the spread of the potter's wheel, not due to the technology itself but because of the specific visual performance of ceramic products.

The introduction of wheel-made (WM) pottery in the Chrudim region marked a significant technological shift, characterised by an apparent discontinuity from other pottery production practices. The contrast between WM and HB pottery production is evident in the traditions expressed by the exerted skills and materialised in the products. Our conclusion suggested that WM pottery represented an item of high social value crafted by a specific group of skilled potters. The high social value associated with WM pottery facilitated the development of organisational forms of production, enabling the long apprenticeships required to acquire and maintain the high level of motor skills necessary for this technology, which utilised broadly available raw materials. We propose that influential individuals of high social status played a pivotal role in introducing WM pottery during the La Tène A period. These individuals probably acted as opinion leaders, establishing mutually beneficial relationships with potters.

We also pointed out that this picture should not be regarded as representative of the introduction of WM pottery in Central Europe in general. During the Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène periods, Central Europe consisted of communities with diverse social configurations, albeit sharing some common cultural traits. In the Chrudim region, we focused on a small and relatively peripheral region characterised by low population density, presumably simpler inter-group economic relations and limited social networks, resulting in a lower degree of cultural interconnectedness compared to other regions. Paradoxically, such an environment may have provided favourable conditions for the control of WM pottery production, as there were no stimulating factors for the development of independent craft specialisation and local technologies could supplement the limited availability of luxury imports. The visible presence of elites in W Bohemia represents a significant difference between the two otherwise peripheral regions. The ceramic production of La Tène fine pottery is then technologically significantly different from that of the Chrudim region. We observed typical LT A vessel shapes manufactured without using rotational motion and, if rotational motion was used, there is usually no noticeable transformation in the internal structure of vessel walls that would indicate significant use of RKE (WS). This suggests a lower level of motor skills required to master the work on the rotational device. Therefore, a strict distinction between HB and WM| traditions and the associated exceptional status indicative of controlled production of WM ceramics cannot be established here. Among prestigious objects, we assume an emphasis on other types of items, which could include Mediterranean imports, found in W Bohemia, unlike in the Chrudim region (e.g., Bouzek et al. 2017; Trefný 2017). Similarly, in Central Bohemia, we did not assume control over the production of the first WM pottery, but this is due to the density of settlements and the extent of social networks and connectivity with other regions.

Generally, we observed a technological discontinuity primarily between LT A and LT B-LT C1 and a gradual development between LT B-LT C1 and LT C2-D1. This finding corresponds to observed changes in material culture, settlement structures, burial practices and other cultural aspects at the transitions between these stages of development in La Tène society (e.g., Collis 1995; Venclová 2002, 2013b, a; Salač 2014; Thér and Mangel 2014; Danielisová et al. 2019). Simultaneously, it is evident that the mentioned discontinuity at the transition from LT A to LT B-C1 more significantly affects peripheral regions with less favourable conditions for the development of socio-economic relationships than central areas. This is the case of W Bohemia. In contrast to other sampled regions, there is an almost complete absence of evidence for settlements and particularly burials in this region during the LT B period (Metlička et al. 2022). The subsequent gradual increase in settlement during the LT C period can be linked to a significant population change, which may also underlie the disruptive changes in pottery manufacturing practices.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to the following colleagues for allowing us to work with ceramic assemblages from their research and collection funds: Zděněk Beneš, David Daněček, Miroslav Dobeš, Petr Holodňák, Drahomíra Malyková, Jan Mařík, Milan Metlička, Petr Nový, Tomáš Polišenský, Lenka Ondráčková, Vladimír Salač, Kamil Smíšek, and Miroslava Šmolíková.

We would also like to thank Madeleine Štulíková for her assistance in correcting the English grammar.

Funding

The research leading to these results received funding from the Czech Science Foundation under Grant Agreement No. 19-21146S.

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Availability of data and material

Data are deposited in a repository.

Code availability

Not applicable.

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Two sites sampled on the boundary between the Central and Eastern Bohemian regions correspond to the phenomena observed in the central part of Central Bohemia, so these two regions are mostly referred to together in the synthesis as Central Bohemia.
We consider the classification we made after critical evaluation to be not entirely reliable since the macroscopic qualitative evaluation of individual fragments seemed to be highly subjective and difficult to replicate. Therefore, we regard the quantification of this phenomenon as very approximate. A solution in this regard would be a quantitative analysis of the surface topography, which will be addressed in a separate study.
It applies for the common ceramic production. There are specific pottery types, such as painted pottery or the so-called grainy grey ware, that undoubtedly reflect highly specialized production. These pottery types are significantly concentrated in oppida (Motyková et al. 1990, pp. 360–361; Cumberpatch 1993a, p. 81; Thér and Mangel 2014, pp. 21–22).

No competing interests reported.

Supplementary1.xlsx
Supplementary Materials SM1. Sampled archaeological features.
Supplementary2.xlsx
Supplementary Materials SM2. Representation of macroscopically observed categories at sampled archaeological sites.
Supplementary3.xlsx
Supplementary Materials SM3. Results of the structural analysis.

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Introduction of the potter’s wheel as a reflection of social and economic changes during the La Tène period in Central Europe

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Journal Publication

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Selected Regions and Sites

Materials and method

Sampling

Macroscopic analysis categories

Classification of ceramic pastes

Surface topography and morphology classification

Technological categories defined on the basis of structural analysis

Results

Central part of Central Bohemia

LT A

LT B2-C1

LT C2-D1

Eastern edge of Central Bohemia

LT A

LT C2-D1

Northwest Bohemia

LT A

LT B2-C1

LT C2-D1

Western Bohemia

LT A

LT B-C1

LT C2-D1

Synthesis

Summary

Discussion and conclusions

Declarations

References

Footnotes

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1