Is the biotic potential, expressed as life-history features and nutritional indices, of generalized herbivore insects a function of host plants? — Spodoptera littoralis as a case study

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3223926/v1

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Is the biotic potential, expressed as life-history features and nutritional indices, of generalized herbivore insects a function of host plants? — Spodoptera littoralis as a case study

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3223926/v1

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published 21 Mar, 2024

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The present study aimed at evaluating the impacts of castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves on the various components of biological fitness and food consumption and utilization of S. littoralis. The levels of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous in the tested host plants were quantified. Feeding larvae on the tested host plants did not affect larval or pupal duration. Whereas, weight of full-grown larvae, adult emergence, and egg-hatch were significantly affected, with the highest and lowest values in case of feeding on castor bean and cucumber leaves, respectively. The highest and lowest number of eggs deposited per female were attained on castor bean and tomato leaves, respectively. Adult male and female longevity was the highest on potato and on castor bean leaves, respectively. Nutritional indices were dependent on the host plant, metamorphed instar, and age within instar, with the most profound change in case of 6th -instar larvae (last instar). Castor bean was the most nutritive host plant as it contained the highest levels of nitrogen and potassium. In contrast, tomato was the least nutritive one as it contained the lowest concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. It appears that castor bean was the most suitable host plant, whereas tomato was the least suitable one. The findings obtained herein may help in understanding the biology of S. littoralis, leading to a better strategy to its control. Future studies should focus on testing a wider range of host plant species.

Lepidoptera

Biological features

Food consumption

Food utilization

Host plant

Phytochemical profile

The Egyptian cotton leaf worm, Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the most important pests to cotton in Egypt, the key economic crop in this country. Besides, in a recent study (CABI 2022), 132 host plant species belonging to 45 families, including economically important field crops, vegetables, and ornamental trees have been recorded as host plants of S. littoralis.

Ever-increasing global human population especially in developing countries has led to intensification of agriculture by continuous planting successive crops throughout the year. So, the term ‘green bridge’ has arisen (Pedigo 2002). In turn, this strategy has led to increasing the availability of host plants throughout the year, facilitating the persistence of pests in agricultural areas (Bueno et al. 2012). Moreover, the availability of food source to polyphagous insect pests induces their outbreaks, allowing secondary polyphagous insect species to gain greater economic importance and thus becoming key pests of various agro-ecosystems (Pedigo 2002).

As the aim of the foraging strategies of herbivore insects is the optimization of the correct blend and balance of nutrients, food quality plays an important role for such insects (da Silva et al. 2017). So, the main challenge for the development of sustainable control strategies of polyphagous insect pests is understanding the diversity of their responses to different host plant species (Després et al. 2007; Hemati et al. 2012; Cabezas et al. 2013; Kianpour et al. 2014.). In this context, it is important to point out that the polyphagous nature of some insects contributes to their rapid adaptation to different agro-ecosystems (Barros et al. 2010; Bortolotto et al. 2014). To manage polyphagous insect pests, pest management systems focusing not only on one major seasonal crop on a single field or farm, but also pest management systems focusing on wide-area cropping systems is required (Abel et al. 2007; Wu 2007; Herde 2009). The availability of nearby crops as food sources and crop rotation sequences are important in population dynamics and outbreaks of polyphagous insects (da Silva et al. 2017). Thus, the identification of feeding preferences, biology, and behavior are crucial factors to find economically and ecologically sustainable solutions to the problems caused by these herbivores (Behmer 2009). Basic biological studies on the utilization of different host plants by polyphagous insects are important for evaluating the impacts of the nutritional composition of different crops on the developmental times and reproduction (Sarfraz et al. 2007; Barros et al. 2010; Silva et al. 2017; Guo et al. 2021). The quality of the host plants also affects resource allocation to egg development and selection of oviposition sites (Awmack and Leather 2002).

The variation in infestations caused by S. littoralis larvae may be attributed to morphological features of plant leaves or their chemical contents (Mohamed et al. 2019). From a nutritional point of view, food utilization efficiency reflects the quality and the quantity of food consumed (Naseri et al. 2010; Baghery et al. 2013), which may greatly affect insect fitness, such as development, survivorship, reproduction, and life table parameters (Scriber and Slansky 1981; Tsai and Wang 2001; Kim and Lee 2002).

Although castor bean is the authentic host plant for rearing S. littoralis larvae in the laboratories, our knowledge of its effect on the biology and food consumption and utilization of this insect is not enough. Tomato, potato, and cucumber have been reported among the main host plants of S. littoralis (CABI 2022). Besides, these vegetables are important food in Egypt (Egyptian Chamber of Food Industries, Personal Communication).

In view of this background, the present study aimed at evaluating the impacts of castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves on the various life-history features and food consumption and utilization of S. littoralis under laboratory conditions. We also quantified the levels of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous in these host plants.

Insect rearing

A stock colony of S. littoralis was reared in the laboratories of the of the Research Division of the Cotton Leafworm, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Ministry of Agriculture, Dokki, Giza, Egypt at 27 ± 2°C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity and a 16-h light: 8-h dark photoperiod according to Shaurub et al. (2023). Larvae were fed on fresh leaves of castor bean Ricinus communis, while adults were fed on a 10% sucrose solution.

Host plants

Four host plants were chosen in this study based on the rationales given in background viz., castor bean (R. communis; Family: Euphorbiaceae), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum; Family: Solanaceae), potato (Solanum tuberosum; Family: Solanaceae), and cucumber (Cucumis sativus; Family: Cucurbitaceae). These host plants were obtained from the Agricultural Research Station, Mansoura University. They were identified by plant taxonomists in the Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University.

Biological features

S. littoralis larvae were first reared separately on the tested four host plants for three generations before assessing the biology of this insect. For this purpose, newly hatched 1st -instar larvae obtained from the stock colony were divided into four groups for the respective four host plants. Each group consisted of 200 larvae fed daily on the respective host plant until pupation. Four replicates with 50 larvae each were conducted per each group. Larval duration, pupal duration, and weight of full-grown larvae were determined. After pupation, one-day-old pupae (435–445 mg) were counted, sexed, and kept in rearing jars (10 cm in diameter, 21 cm in height) for determining adult emergence. Newly emerged moths were divided into four pairs, each pair (one male and one female) was housed in a glass jar (10 cm in diameter, 21 cm in height), covered with a piece of muslin cloth, and fed on a 10% fresh sucrose solution. A small branch of oleander Nerium oleander was placed in the jar to provide a suitable site for oviposition (Shaurub et al. 2023). Fecundity (total number of eggs/ female), fertility (egg-hatch percentage), and longevity of adults of both sexes were determined.

Nutritional indices

Newly hatched 1st -instar larvae were collected from the stock colony and separately reared on the four host plants for three generations. Two hundred larvae were used per each host plant treatment. Each treatment was replicated four times with 50 larvae each. Nutritional indices were estimated starting from newly molted 4th -instar larvae to the end of 6th -instar larvae according to Shaurub et al. (2020). Under the above-mentioned laboratory conditions, 4th, 5th, and 6th instar last 2, 2, and 3 days, respectively (Shaurub et al. 2020). Newly molted 4th -instar larvae of a known weight (32–36 mg) were starved for 10 h, released into a 500-ml plastic cup, lined with 10-cm diameter filter paper (Whatman # 1), covered with a perforated lid, and supplied with leaves of each host plant of a known weight. Rearing cups were cleaned daily and supplied with fresh leaves of each host plant of a known weight until pupation (pre-pupae). To minimize experimental errors often associated in calculating the nutritional indices, enough food was supplied so that at least 80% of the available food was consumed during the experiment (Schmidt and Reese 1986). The fresh mass of surviving instars (4th, 5th, and 6th instars), feces, and consumed leaves in each rearing cup were recorded daily. To estimate the actual loss of moisture, which was used for calculating the corrected weight of consumed leaves, fresh leaves were kept in a similar rearing cup under the same experimental conditions. Food consumption and utilization were calculated according to the equations of Waldbauer (1968) as follows:

Consumption index (CI) = F/TA

Relative growth rate (RGR) = G/TA

Approximate digestibility (AD) = (F – E/F) × 100

Efficiency of conversion of ingested food to biomass (ECI) = (RGR/CI) × 100

Efficiency of conversion of digested food to biomass (ECD) = (G/F – E) × 100

where:

A = fresh mean weight of larvae during the feeding period (mg)

E = fresh mass of feces (mg)

F = fresh weight of food ingested (mg)

G = fresh weight gain of larvae at the end of the feeding period (mg)

T = duration of the feeding period (days).

Nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous concentrations

Total contents of nitrogen (Muñoz-Huerta et al. 2013), potassium (Liu et al. 2018) and phosphorous (Liu et al. 2018) were estimated in castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves. Each analysis was replicated four times.

Statistical analysis

All datasets were first assessed for normality using the Shapiro-Wilk test and subsequently expressed as the mean ± standard error (SE) for analysis. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) among the four tested host plants for each variable. When the ANOVA statistics were significant, the means of each variable were separated by Tuckey’s test. Significance level was set at P ≤ 0.05. All statistical calculations were conducted using IBM-SPSS Statistics, v. 25 (IBM, Armonk, New York, NY, USA).

Table 1 shows the effects of castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves on certain life-history features of S. littoralis. Overall, feeding S. littoralis larvae on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves did not affect their duration. Duration of larvae fed on tomato leaves was shorter than that of larvae fed on castor bean, potato, and cucumber leaves by 10.93, 12.83, and 12.37%, respectively. Similarly, the tested host plants did not affect the duration of surviving pupae, with the shortest pupal duration (13.0 days) in case of castor bean. Duration of pupae surviving larvae reared on tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves was approximately similar to each other (15.2–15.4 days). Weight of full-grown larvae was significantly affected by host plants (P < 0.05), with the largest weight (650.8 mg) and smallest weight (300.7 mg) in case of feeding larvae on castor bean and cucumber, respectively. Larval weight in case of feeding on tomato and potato was approximately the same (450.5 and 450.9 mg, respectively. Adult emergence was dramatically decreased (P < 0.05) when larvae were reared on tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves (46.7, 40.2, and 23.8%, respectively) compared to that in case of rearing on castor bean (95.2%). Treatment with castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves significantly affected adult longevity (P < 0.05), with the longest female longevity (7.1 days) and male longevity (6.1 days) in case of castor bean and potato leaves, respectively. The number of eggs deposited per female (fecundity) was also significantly affected by the types of host plants tested (P < 0.05). The highest number of eggs (480 eggs/female) and the lowest ones (170 eggs/female) were deposited by females surviving larvae fed on castor bean and tomato leaves, respectively. Fertility (egg-hatch percentage) was also significantly affected by host plants (P < 0.05). The highest egg-hatch percent (98.1%) and the lowest one (40%) were attained in case of females surviving larvae fed on castor bean and cucumber leaves, respectively.

Table 1

Life-history features of *S. littoralis* fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Host plants	Larval duration (days)	Pupal duration (days)	Larval weight (mg)	Adult emergence (%)	Adult male longevity (days)	Adult female longevity (days)	Fecundity (no. of eggs /♀)	Fertility (% egg-hatch)
Castor bean	18.3 ± 0.31^a	13.0 ± 0.32^a	650.8 ± 10.23^a	95.2	4.9 ± 0.51^a	7.1 ± 0.70^a	480.0 ± 10.41^a	98.1
Tomato	16.3 ± 0.12^a	15.2 ± 0.21^a	450.5 ± 15.56^b	46.7	3.9 ± 0.32^b	6.2 ± 0.50^a	170.0 ± 3.90^b	70.0
Potato	18.7 ± 0.41^a	15.4 ± 0.31^a	450.9 ± 13.68^b	40.2	6.1 ± 0.53^c	6.1 ± 0.50^a	180.0 ± 2.91^b	66.2
Cucumber	18.6 ± 0.12^a	15.3 ± 0.22^a	300.7 ± 12.36^c	23.8	4.5 ± 0.41^a	4.5 ± 0.40^b	280.0 ± 3. 22^c	40.0
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within columns for each variable are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

In accord with our findings, Mohamed et al. (2019) reported that total larval duration of S. littoralis fed on clover, cabbage, broad bean, sugar beet, and cotton leaves was 18.0, 19.0, 18.0, 25.2, and 22.6 days, respectively. Pupal duration was 14.4, 14.2, 15.2, 14.4, and 13.8 days, respectively. Adult emergence ranged from 95.58 to 89.0%. The highest number of eggs deposited per female in a descending order were as follows: broad bean > clover > cotton > sugar beet > cabbage leaves. In the same context, Ismail (2020) showed that larval duration of S. littoralis fed on clover, broad bean, and cabbage leaves was 18.6, 16.5, and 13.2 days, respectively. Pupal duration was 10.0, 9.7, and 9.1 days, respectively. The highest larval weight, adult emergence, number of eggs deposited per female, and egg-hatch percentage were recorded in case of cabbage leaves.

Soybean and cotton were found to be the most suitable hosts for development and oviposition of Spodoptera eridania and Spodoptera cosmioides compared to oat, wheat, and maize (da Silva et al. 2017a). Similarly, compared to tobacco, Chinese cabbage, and sweet potato, cowpea was found to be the most suitable host plant for development of S. litura based on the shortest developmental times of larvae and pupae. The lowest pupation rate was on sweet potato. The highest number of eggs deposited were on sweet potato, followed by those on cowpea, Chinese cabbage and tobacco (Xu et al., 2010). The highest survival rate and the shortest larval duration of Spodoptera exigua were on asparagus lettuce, whereas the lowest survival rate and the longest larval duration were on sweet peppers (Zhang et al. 2021). Effects of host plants on developmental times, survivability, and reproductive potential of Spodoptera frugiperda have been reported by several authors (da Silva et al. 2017b; Diédhiou et al. 2021; Maharani1 et al. 2021; Al-Ayat et al. 2022; Altaf, et al. 2022; Gopalakrishnan 2022; Nandhini et al. 2023).

Table 1 shows, in general, a positive correlation between weight of full-grown larvae and fecundity and fertility of S. littoralis. Greenberg et al. (2001) reported that at each host plant treatment, fecundity increased with increasing pupal weight. Syed and Abro (2003) found a significant relationship between fecundity and pupal weight of Plutella xylosiella surviving larvae fed on different host plants. Shahout et al. (2011) demonstrated that weight and length of ovaries of Spodoptera litura were affected by the host plants.

Overall, castor bean leaves were the most nutritive host plant as it contained the highest levels of nitrogen and phosphorous. In contrast, tomato leaves were the least nutritive host as it contained the lowest contents of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium (Fig. 1). Nitrogen is an essential element in plants due to its key role in the production of primary and secondary metabolites important in plant physiology impacting performance and tolerance to environmental stresses (Muñoz-Huerta et al. 2013). Quality and quantity of food consumed by insect species directly influence their host preferences and affect their biological, physiological, and behavioral characteristics (Nation 2002; Golizadeh et al. 2009; Cabezas et al. 2013). It is known that the lepidopteran larvae fed on high-nutrient food obtain a faster growth rate and possess a short life cycle when compared to those fed on low-nutrient food (Hwang et al. 2008). Several authors reported the importance of allelochemicals as deterrents, repellents, and stimulants present in plants (Berenbaum and Neal 1985; Vendramim and Guzzo 2009). Host-plant adaptation also can be viewed in terms of physiological, biochemical, and evolutionary adaptations to host-plant allelochemicals (Slansky 1992; Sorensen and Dearing 2006). Tomato leaves have been shown to contain significant amounts of important allelochemicals involved in tomato plant protection against abiotic and biotic stresses (Nguenang et al. 2020; Tam et al. 2021; Bazzarelli et al. 2022). Ismail (2020) attributed the unsuitability of tomato leaves to developing and reproducing S. littoralis compared to clover, broad bean, and cabbage leaves to lower nutrient contents, including nitrogen, proteins, and carbohydrates. These findings may explain the highest weight of larvae, number of eggs deposited per female, and egg-hatch percentage in case of feeding S. littoralis larvae on castor bean leaves, and meanwhile may explain the lowest number of eggs deposited per female and egg-hatch percentage of larvae fed on tomato leaves.

The present study revealed that nutritional indices of S. littoralis larvae were dependent not only on the type of host plant and metamorphed instar, but also on the age within instar. Overall, during the growth of 4th, 5th, and 6th - instar larvae of S. littoralis, the lowest food consumed was attained in case of feeding on tomato leaves. In insects, poor nutrition during development typically leads to undersized adults (Scriber and Slansky 1981; Awmack and Leather 2002; Colasurdo et al. 2009; Dmitriew and Rowe 2011). Entire 6th -instar larvae fed on castor bean leaves consumed higher food compared to those fed on tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves (Table 2).

Table 2

Consumption index (CI) of *S. littoralis* larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Instars	Age of instars (days)	Castor bean	Tomato	Potato	Cucumber
Instars	Age of instars (days)	CI (mg food ingested/mg body wt/day)
4th	1	0.7 ± 0.05^a	1.5 ± 0.05^b	2.2 ± 0.05^c	1.0 ± 0.05^d
4th	2	0.3 ± 0.05^a	0.8 ± 0.01^b	1.1 ± 0.05^b	0.6 ± 0.05^c
5th	1	2.0 ± 0.50^a	0.9 ± 0.05^b	4.0 ± 0.60^c	1.5 ± 0.05^d
5th	2	1.0 ± 0.05^a	0.4 ± 0.05^b	2.0 ± 0.50^c	0.8 ± 0.05^a
6th	1	2.7 ± 0.05^a	0.9 ± 0.05^b	1.6 ± 0.05^c	1.3 ± 0.05^c
	2	1.3 ± 0.05^a	0.4 ± 0.05^b	0.8 ± 0.05^c	0.7 ± 0.05^c
	3	0.9 ± 0.05^a	0.3 ± 0.01^b	0.5 ± 0.05^c	0.4 ± 0.04^c
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within rows for each age are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

The highest RGR, particularly during the entire 6th -instar larvae was in case of feeding on castor bean leaves, whereas the lowest RGR was in case of feeding on tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves. The RGR in case of tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves was approximately the same during the entire 6th -instar larvae (Table 3).

Table 3

Relative growth rate (RGR) of *S. littoralis* larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Instars	Age of instars (days)	Castor bean	Tomato	Potato	Cucumber
Instars	Age of instars (days)	RGR (mg wt gain/mg body wt/day)
4th	1	3.7 ± 0.06^a	2.0 ± 0.50^b	1.1 ± 0.05^c	1.3 ± 0.05^c
4th	2	0.6 ± 0.03^a	1.0 ± 0.02^b	0.6 ± 0.03^c	0.7 ± 0.05^c
5th	1	3.1 ± 0.05^a	1.0 ± 0.02^b	4.5 ± 0.60^c	1.5 ± 0.05^d
5th	2	1.6 ± 0.05^a	0.5 ± 0.01^b	2.3 ± 0.05^c	0.8 ± 0.05^d
6th	1	3.3 ± 0.06^a	1.2 ± 0.05^b	1.2 ± 0.05^b	1.3 ± 0.01^b
	2	1.7 ± 0.05^a	0.6 ± 0.02^b	0.6 ± 0.05^b	0.6 ± 0.01^b
	3	1.1 ± 0.05^a	0.4 ± 0.01^b	0.4 ± 0.05^b	0.4 ± 0.02^b
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within rows for each age are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

During the entire 4th or 5th -instar larvae, the AD of larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves was approximately the same. However, during the entire 6th -instar larvae, the highest AD was obtained in case of feeding on potato leaves, followed by castor bean, tomato, and cucumber leaves (Table 4).

Table 4

Approximate digestibility (AD) of *S. littoralis* larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Instars	Age of instars (days)	Castor bean	Tomato	Potato	Cucumber
Instars	Age of instars (days)	AD (%)
4th	1	8.8 ± 0.06^a	9.7 ± 0.05^a	18.6 ± 0.10^b	9.6 ± 0.05^a
4th	2	8.3 ± 0.10^a	9.4 ± 0.05^a	18.7 ± 0.10^b	9.4 ± 0.05^a
5th	1	38.3 ± 0.10^a	23.5 ± 0.20^b	41.6 ± 0.20^c	19.7 ± 0.06^b
5th	2	38.2 ± 0.10^a	23.4 ± 0.20^b	41.5 ± 0.20^c	20.2 ± 0.06^b
6th	1	52.7 ± 0.10^a	37.6 ± 0.20^a	87.1 ± 0.20^b	31.6 ± 0.10^ab
	2	52.6 ± 0.10^a	37.4 ± 0.20^a	87.3 ± 0.20^b	31.5 ± 0.10^ac
	3	52.3 ± 0.10^a	37.3 ± 0.20^a	86.9 ± 0.20^b	31.5 ± 0.10^ac
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within rows for each age are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

Change in the ECI and ECD values reflects the change in conversion rates of digested and ingested food into body mass, respectively. In the present investigation, 1-day-old 4th -instar larvae of S. littoralis showed the highest ECI in case of feeding on tomato and cucumber leaves, whereas the lowest ECI was in case of feeding on castor bean and potato leaves. During the entire 5th -instar larvae, the highest ECI was in case of castor bean, whereas the lowest one was in case of feeding on cucumber leaves. In the last instar larvae (i.e., 6th -instar larvae), the highest ECI was in case of feeding on castor bean leaves, followed by tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves (Table 5). The highest ECD during the entire 6th -instar larvae was obtained in case of feeding on castor bean leaves, followed by tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves, a pattern which is similar to that of ECI. During the entire 4th or 5th -instar larvae, the highest ECD was in case of castor bean leaves. During 4th -instar larvae, the lowest ECD was in case of feeding on potato leaves, and the lowest one during the entire 5th -instar larvae was in case of cucumber leaves (Table 6). Timmins and Reynolds (1992) attributed reduction in the efficiency of food utilization to increased energetic costs arising from a reduced ability to utilize dietary nitrogen, which would not necessarily interfere with absorption from the gut.

Table 5

Efficiency of conversion of ingested food to biomass (ECI) of *S. littoralis* larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Instars	Age of instars (days)	Castor bean	Tomato	Potato	Cucumber
Instars	Age of instars (days)	ECI (%)
4th	1	2.2 ± 0.06^a	4.4 ± 0.05^b	2.4 ± 0.01^a	4.3 ± 0.05^b
4th	2	9.6 ± 0.06^a	4.4 ± 0.05^b	2.6 ± 0.01^c	3.9 ± 0.05^b
5th	1	8.6 ± 0.05^a	4.4 ± 0.05^b	5.9 ± 0.02^c	3.3 ± 0.06^d
5th	2	8.9 ± 0.05^a	5.0 ± 0.05^b	6.1 ± 0.02^b	3.4 ± 0.06^c
6th	1	8.1 ± 0.06^a	6.3 ± 0.06^b	4.7 ± 0.02^c	3.8 ± 0.05^d
	2	8.7 ± 0.06^a	6.3 ± 0.06^b	4.9 ± 0.02^c	3.6 ± 0.05^d
	3	8.1 ± 0.05^a	5.8 ± 0.06^b	5.0 ± 0.02^b	4.0 ± 0.05^b
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within rows for each age are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

Table 6

Efficiency of conversion of digested food to biomass (ECD) of *S. littoralis* larvae fed on castor bean, tomato, potato, and cucumber leaves
Instars	Age of instars (days)	Castor bean	Tomato	Potato	Cucumber
Instars	Age of instars (days)	ECD (%)
4th	1	3.8 ± 0.06^a	3.4 ± 0.05^a	0.5 ± 0.01^b	3.1 ± 0.03^a
4th	2	6.0 ± 0.06^a	2.8 ± 0.05^b	1.0 ± 0.01^c	2.8 ± 0.03^b
5th	1	4.8 ± 0.05^a	1.9 ± 0.05^b	2.2 ± 0.02^c	1.0 ± 0.03^d
5th	2	3.7 ± 0.05^a	1.5 ± 0.05^b	1.7 ± 0.02^b	0.7 ± 0.02^c
6th	1	3.0 ± 0.06a	2.3 ± 0.03^b	1.3 ± 0.02^c	0.6 ± 0.02^d
	2	2.3 ± 0.06^a	1.3 ± 0.03^b	0.9 ± 0.02^c	0.2 ± 0.01^a
	3	2.0 ± 0.05^a	1.1 ± 0.03^b	0.7 ± 0.02^c	0.1 ± 0.01^d
Data are presented as the mean ± SE. Means followed by different letters within rows for each age are significantly different (P < 0.05) using Tuckey’s test.

In 6th -instar larvae of S. littoralis fed on castor bean leaves, the highest CI (Table 2) was correlated with the highest RGR (Table 3), ECI (Table 5), and ECD (Table 6). This explains the highest weight of full-grown larvae fed on castor bean leaves (Table 1). The lowest gross food utilization efficiencies (ECI and ECD) of full-grown larvae fed on cucumber leaves (Tables 5 & 6) and the lowest CI (Table 2) also explain the lowest weight of full-grown larvae fed on cucumber leaves (Table 1). The highest values of AD of full-grown larvae fed on the four tested host plants (Table 4) may have been an attempt by larvae to compensate the lowest rate of food consumption (Table 2), resulting in reduced fecal production (Slansky and Scriber 1985).

In accord with our results, Gacemi1 et al. (2019) demonstrated that the highest food utilization efficiencies (ECI and ECD) of 5th -instar larvae of S. littoralis were on artichoke and the lowest were on cabbage, whereas, the highest CI, AD, and RGR were on cabbage. Similarly, Ismail et al. (2020) recorded that the highest CI of S. littoralis larvae was on cabbage leaves, followed by broad bean and clover, with the highest RGR and AD on broad bean and cabbage leaves, respectively. Mousavi et al. (2023) showed that the lowest and the highest AD values of S. littoralis larvae were on basil and purslane, respectively. The highest values of food utilization efficiencies (ECI and ECD) were on chives and coriander, respectively, whereas the lowest food utilization efficiencies and RGR were on purslane.

Jooyandeh (2018) showed that Sivand and Super Queen tomato cultivars were unsuitable hosts for feeding Helicoverpa armigera among the ten tested cultivars based on the nutritional performance of 4th, 5th, and 6th -instar larvae. Similarly, nutritional indices of 3rd, 4th, and 5th -instar larvae of Pieris brassicae were studied by Mehrkhou et al. (2013) using different cabbage cultivars. They showed that white cabbage was the most nutritive and could successfully support maximum values of RGR and food utilization efficiencies among the tested cabbage cultivars. In contrast, cauliflower was the least nutritive one. Xue et al. (2010) observed that CI of S. litura larvae was highest on sweet potato, followed by that on cowpea, Chinese cabbage, and lowest on tobacco. In contrast, larvae fed on tobacco showed the highest food utilization efficiencies and lowest AD compared with those fed on Chinese cabbage, cowpea, and sweet potato. Zhu et al. (2005) found that S. litura larvae had lower RGR, CI, and AD on banana leaves, although they had a significantly higher food utilization efficiencies, indicating that the larvae were capable of compensating by more efficiently utilizing their limited banana leaf tissues than other host plants. The effects of host plants on the nutritional indices of S. frugiperda have been reported by several authors (da Silva et al. 2017b; Bavisa et al. 2021; Al-Ayat et al. 2022; Nandhini et al. 2023).

Based on the life-history features (particularly shorter developmental times and higher reproduction rate) and nutritional indices (particularly higher CI, RGR, ECI, and ECD) of S. littoralis as well as the higher phytochemical profile of the four tested host plants (higher total nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium), it appears that castor bean was the most suitable host plant. In contrast, tomato was the least suitable host plant. Assessment of the chemical components of host plant species would help to better understand the mechanism of host suitability/preference. The findings obtained herein may help in understanding the biology of S. littoralis, leading to a better strategy to its control. Future studies should focus on testing a wider range of host plant species.

Authors' Contributions

RME carried out the experiments. EHS, GEA, AAE, and ZSA conceived and designed the paper. EHS wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.

Data availability

All data related to this study are present in the paper.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Is the biotic potential, expressed as life-history features and nutritional indices, of generalized herbivore insects a function of host plants? — Spodoptera littoralis as a case study

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Introduction

Materials and Methods

Insect rearing

Host plants

Biological features

Nutritional indices

Nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous concentrations

Statistical analysis

Results and Discussion

Conclusions

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