The Relationship between Defensive pessimism, Goal Orientation and Self Esteem among Faculty Nursing Students

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3229305/v1

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The Relationship between Defensive pessimism, Goal Orientation and Self Esteem among Faculty Nursing Students

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3229305/v1

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Background: The academic achievement of students is closely tied to their self-worth and ability to stay focused on their goals. Furthermore, students can use their cognitive abilities to pursue their goal direction and motivate themselves. They may set low expectations before entering a situation, not because they believe they will fail, but to prepare themselves for the possibility of failure. By doing so, they can motivate themselves to work harder and avoid anticipated failure, which is known as defensive pessimism.

The study’s aims: Assess the levels of defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem of nursing students at the Faculty of Nursing, Alexandria University.

Subjects: 400 students were included in research by stratified sampling method followed by simple randomization sampling technique to select 100 students from each academic year.

Tools: The Defensive Pessimism Questionnaire, The Goal Orientation Scale, and Self-Esteem Scale were used.

Results: 56.28% of participants had a low level of defensive pessimism, about two thirds (62.30%) of the participants had a low level of goal orientation, and 70.0% of the students had a mild level of self-esteem.

Conclusion: It was observed that there is a significant and positive correlation between defensive pessimism and goal orientation while there was a negative significant correlation found with self-esteem.

Implications: it is suggested that workshops be conducted for nursing students to educate them about defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem. This will help the students to understand these concepts better and develop psycho-education program to improve their goal-setting abilities, self-esteem, and decrease use of defensive pessimism which may lead to better academic achievement.

Defensive pessimism

Goal Orientation

Self Esteem

Students

Academic achievement

The field of education aims to promote lifelong learning and personal development. Educational psychology is essential for educators to promote students to develop their cognitive, psychomotor, and affective capabilities ^[1]. Furthermore, academic success is closely related to students' self-worth and their ability to focus on their goals ^[2]. Students' self-improvement can protect their goal orientation and prevent pessimism ^[3].

Personality traits such as character, confidence, competence, connection, and caring have been explored for their impact in encouraging positive development in students facing difficulties ^[4]. Self-esteem is the perception held by students regarding their competence in dealing with fundamental challenges in life, as well as their sense of worth and value ^[5]. Consequently, self-esteem is a crucial factor in motivating students to achieve academic goals ^[6]. Students with positive self-esteem are likely to strive for higher academic achievements and, in turn, increase their self-esteem ^[7].

Defensive pessimism is a mental tactic employed by students, whereby they set expectations that are uncharacteristically low, with the goal of motivating themselves to work diligently to prevent failure. Defensive pessimism can protect self-worth from possible failure and aid in managing anxiety related to potential failure by prompting students to consider and prepare for all conceivable outcomes associated with future events, thereby motivating them to think critically and plan ^[8]. As defensive pessimists become more goal-oriented, they experience substantial improvements in their self-esteem and overall satisfaction, perform better academically, and make greater progress towards achieving their personal objectives over time ^[9].

Goal orientation is essential in motivating students and is classified as either mastery or performance focused. The concept of mastery goal orientation emphasizes the development of one's abilities, the acquisition of new skills, and the pursuit of challenging goals to understand the learning materials. On the other hand, performance goal orientation is centered around demonstrating superior abilities compared to others and using social comparison as a standard to evaluate performance. The achievement goal theory is a widely recognized motivational theory that has been utilized to examine how various classroom structures and school environments affect student learning and motivation ^[10].

Furthermore, Students who experience higher levels of anxiety are more likely to adopt defensive pessimism as a strategy. By envisioning the worst possible outcomes before undertaking a task, they can achieve similar levels of performance as individuals who do not experience anxiety initially. ^[12]. Therefore, they need psychological support to adopt positive thinking to overcome their anxiety. Positive psychology is the scientific study that enhances positive experiences and positive individual traits, which facilitates their development ^[13]. Hence, this paper aims to assess positive psychology variables, defensive pessimism, self-esteem, and goal orientation toward academic success.

Moreover, the literature documented that students’ achievement cannot be addressed without positive self-esteem and both are closely tied to their pessimistic prediction and goal orientation ^[14,15]. Nursing Faculty students are responsible for preparing competent nursing care, meeting the growing demands of the healthcare system, and shaping the future of the nursing profession.

Defensive pessimism, self-worth, and academic goal achievement among nursing students are significant as they can offer valuable perspectives. into their academic performance as well as well-being. Therefore, understanding the relationships between these factors can develop interventions aimed at improving nursing students' academic performance and overall well-being ^[14].

As the role of nurses is paramount, and their competence and self-esteem level are crucial in ensuring patient safety and reducing errors in the clinical environment ^[15,16]. Thus, research that shed light on investigating nursing faculty students' self-esteem, goal orientation, and defensive pessimism is significant in reinforcing their self-esteem, enhancing goal achievement, and empowering positive prediction toward their performance. The results of this study have the potential to aid in the creation of initiatives aimed at enhancing the performance of nursing students and improving the standard of nursing care given to patients.

The aim of the study is to:

Assess the levels of defensive pessimism, goal orientation and self-esteem among nursing students.

Determine the relationship between defensive pessimism, goal orientation and self-esteem among nursing students.

The research questions:

What are the levels of defensive pessimism, goal orientation and self-esteem among nursing students?
Is there a relationship between defensive pessimism, goal orientation and self-esteem among nursing students?

MATERIALS

Study design:

The study was conducted using a descriptive and correlational framework.

Setting:

The research was carried out at the college of Nursing, Damnhour University.

Subjects:

This research was conducted in the spring semester of the 2022–2023 academic year at Damnhour University's college of Nursing. A total of 2930 nursing students were enrolled during this academic year, including 550 first-year students, 1162 second-year students, 778 third-year students, and 440 fourth-year students.

A statistical power (G* power) analysis was used to determine the sample size, with an effect size of 0.03, power level of 0.90, and alpha of 0.05, accounting for an anticipated 20% non-response rate. The analysis yielded a minimum sample size of 340, but the researchers decided to recruit 400 students. Researchers used equal allocation stratified sampling technique to reduce sampling variability, bias, and ensure that all strata are adequately represented in the sample. researchers decided to select 100 participants from each academic year stratum using a simple randomization sampling technique. However, 52 students refused to participate, so replacements were selected using randomization to complete the stratum.

Variables of interest

This study employed four different instruments to gather data:

Tool I: a questionnaire was divided into two parts: Part 1: collected socio-demographic data, such as the student's gender, age, place of residence, marital status, monthly expenses, and whether they worked while studying. Part 2: collected academic data, including the year of enrollment, the student's grades in the previous academic year, and their academic and social activities.

Tool II: Defensive Pessimism Questionnaire: Norem (2002) ^[17] created the Defensive Pessimism Questionnaire, which consists of twelve self-report statements used to gauge the methods individuals use to safeguard their self-worth from potential failure by setting lower expectations. The questionnaire encompasses two factors referred to as negative expectations and reflection. Respondents rate their responses to each statement on a seven Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7, with 1 indicating "Not at all true of me" and 7 indicating "Very true of me." The total score is obtained by adding up all the items and ranges from 12 to 84, Higher scores indicate a greater degree of defensive pessimism. Individuals with a total score ranging from 12 to 41 are classified as having a low level of defensive pessimism, those with scores ranging from 42 to 62 indicate a moderate level, and individuals with scores from 63 to 84 reflect a high level of defensive pessimism.

Tool III: Goal Orientation Scale (GOS): Skaalvik (1997) ^[18] developed the Goal Orientation Scale, which consists of twenty-one items designed to measure four types of achievement goals. The first subscale, "mastery-approach goals," is assessed by items 3, 5, 9, 11, 15, and 18. This subscale measures the extent to which individuals focus on learning, increasing their knowledge, and developing their abilities. The second subscale, "performance-approach goals," is assessed by items 1, 4, 13, 16, and 19. This subscale indicates the extent to which individuals strive to prove that they are more capable and have accomplished more than others. The third subscale, "mastery-avoidance goals," is assessed by items 6, 8, 10, 14, 17, and 20. It assesses the degree to which individuals are concerned with avoiding the appearance of incompetence or receiving negative evaluations from others. Finally, the fourth subscale, "performance avoidance goals," is assessed by items 2, 7, 12, and 21. This subscale evaluates the degree to which individuals prioritize avoiding academic tasks and exerting effort.

Participants assess their level of agreement with each statement using a five-point Likert scale, where a score of 1 signifies "never" and a score of 5 signifies "always." The overall score is calculated by adding up the scores of all items, which ranges from 21 to 105. A higher total score indicates a stronger orientation towards achievement goals. Scores between 21 to 52 are indicative of a low level of goal orientation, while scores between 53 to 78 suggest a moderate level. Scores ranging from 79 to 105 reflect a high level of goal orientation.

Tool IV: The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSE): RSE was originally developed by Rosenberg in 1965 and was later translated into Arabic by Oweis, et al., (2010) ^[19] This self-report scale consists of ten items and is used to measure global self-esteem. Participants indicate their level of agreement with each statement using a four-point Likert scale, where a score of 4 signifies "strongly agree" and a score of 1 signifies "strongly disagree" for items 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7. However, for items 3, 5, 8, 9, and 10, the scoring is reversed. The total score of the scale is 40 points and is divided into three levels: low, moderate, and high self-esteem. scores of 22 or less indicate low self-esteem, scores between 23 and 33 indicate moderate self-esteem. According to Oweis, et al., (2010) ^[19] the scale was valid and had acceptable internal consistency using test – retest reliability.

METHOD

The Research Ethics Committee at Damnhour University's Faculty of Nursing approved the study before it was conducted. Approval was also obtained from the relevant authorities at the Faculty of Nursing, which included the Dean as well as the Chairpersons of the academic nursing departments.

The researchers created Tool I after conducting a literature review. The Self-Esteem Scale (Tool IV) used in this study was the Arabic version. The Defensive Pessimism Questionnaire (Tool II) and the Goal Orientation Scale (Tool III) were translated into Arabic and assessed for content validity by a panel of five experts, who confirmed their validity. The internal consistency and reliability of Tools II, III, and IV were evaluated on a sample of 40 nursing students using Cronbach's alpha test in the academic year 2022–2023, with Tool II having an alpha of 0.855, Tool III having an alpha of 0.806, and Tool IV having an alpha of 0.871.

Prior to conducting the actual study, a pilot study was conducted on 40 nursing students who were not included in the main research. The pilot study indicated that the research tools were clear, understandable, and feasible. Using stratified random sampling, 100 students were selected from each academic year using systematic random sampling from the total number of registered students (2930) in the spring semester of the academic year 2022–2023. The researchers collected data by visiting students in their classroom lectures and clinical laboratories, and it took approximately 15–20 minutes to complete the study tools. Data collection was conducted over a period of three months, from November 2022 to January 2023.

Ethical Considerations:

The researchers obtained written informed consent from each student, explaining the significance and objectives of the study. The confidentiality of any obtained data was maintained, and student privacy and anonymity were respected throughout the research. The students had the right to opt out of the study without facing any negative consequences.

VII. Statistical Analysis:

The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS software package version 20.0 (Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). The normality of distribution was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Quantitative data were described using various statistical measures, such as range (minimum and maximum), mean, standard deviation, median, and interquartile range (IQR). The significance of the obtained results was evaluated at the 5% significance level. The following statistical tests were employed: Pearson coefficient to determine the correlation between two normally distributed quantitative variables, the Mann-Whitney test to compare two groups for abnormally distributed quantitative variables, and the Kruskal-Walli’s test to compare more than two groups for abnormally distributed quantitative variables.

Table (1) illustrates the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants in the study. Most of the students (77.5%) were female, with an age range of 18–24 years and a mean age of 20.02 ± 1.35 years. Most of the students (75.5%) were from rural areas, and most of them (91.8%) were single. The study also found that 73.0% of the students perceive their monthly expense is adequate. Insert table (1) here.

Table (2) presents the academic characteristics of the students. Nearly half of the students (45.0%) obtained excellent grades in the previous academic year. Most of the students (82.80%) did not participate in academic or social activities. Insert table (2) here.

Figure (2) shows the distribution of the students according to their total score of defensive pessimism. More than half of the students (56.28%) had a low level of defensive pessimism, while nearly a quarter (24.52%) had a high level, and the rest (19.20%) had a moderate level. Insert figure (2) here.

Figure (3) illustrates the distribution of the students according to their total score of goal orientation. Most of the students (62.30%) had a low level of goal orientation, while 30.50% had a high level, and only 7.20% had a moderate level. Insert figure (3) here.

Figure (4) represents the distribution of the students according to their total score of self-esteem. The figure shows that 70.0% of the students had a moderate level of self-esteem, 21.8% had a high level, and only 8.30% had a low level. Insert figure (4) here.

Table (3) presents the correlations between defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem among nursing students. The results show a positive significant correlation between defensive pessimism and goal orientation (r = 0.291, p < 0.001) and a positive significant correlation between self-esteem and mastery-performance approach goals (r = 0.335, p < 0.001, r = 0.142, p < 0.001, respectively) and a negative significant correlation between self-esteem and mastery-performance avoidance goals (r=-0.351, p < 0.001, r=-0.041, p < 0.001, respectively). The table also illustrate a negative significant correlation between defensive pessimism and self-esteem (r=-0.246, p < 0.001). This suggests that a high level of defensive pessimism indicates a higher level of goal orientation and a lower level of self-esteem. Insert table (3) here.

Table (4) presents the relation between the mean scores of defensive pessimisms, goal orientation, self-esteem, and the socio-demographic and academic characteristics of the studied students. The results show that students who had inadequate monthly expenses, enrolled in the first year, and those who failed in the previous academic year, or participated in extracurricular activities had the highest mean score of defensive pessimism. A statistically significant relation was observed between monthly expense, year of enrollment, student's grade in the previous academic year, and participation in extracurricular activities in relation to the mean score of defensive pessimism (p = 0.007, p = 0.011, p = 0.004, and p = 0.011, respectively).

Regarding goal orientation, the results indicate that students who lived in rural areas, had inadequate family income, failed in the previous academic year, or did not participate in extracurricular activities had the highest mean score of goal orientation. A statistically significant relation was observed between residence, monthly expense, year of enrollment, student's academic achievement in the previous academic year, and participation in extracurricular activities in relation to the mean score of goal orientation (p = 0.036, p = 0.006, p = 0.006, and p = 0.016, respectively).

Finally, the results show that students who had adequate monthly expenses obtained the highest mean score of self-esteem. A statistically significant correlation was observed between family income and the mean score of self-esteem. Insert table (4) here.

A growing awareness among educational researchers of the importance of adopting a student-motivational approach in the academic learning environment. In this context, self-esteem and defensive pessimism are regarded as crucial factors that influence goal attainment. Students may utilize defensive pessimism as a tactic to pursue their objectives while also safeguarding their self-esteem ^[3,20−23].

In this study, the researchers aimed to assess the level of defensive pessimism, goal orientation and self-worth and to determine the relationship between them among faculty students. The findings of the present study indicate a statistically significant positive correlation between goal orientation and defensive pessimism. It is plausible that students who exhibit defensive pessimism may use their negative self-talk as a motivational tool to work hard and prevent the failure they anticipate. This could help to explain why these students tend to use defensive pessimism and focus on performance-approach goals. This could be supported by study by Yamawaki, et al. (2004) ^[21], they found evidence that students who exhibit defensive pessimism may leverage their negative thoughts to drive themselves to work harder and avoid potential failure.

Adding to supporting study, Ferradás et al. (2020) ^[3] suggests that defensive pessimism plays a role in the association between self-esteem and approach goals, particularly in the learning and performance dimensions. Another study conceptualized that defensive pessimistic students may be more inclined towards performance-avoidance goals and less inclined towards mastery in academic settings than optimists. These findings indicate that defensive pessimism can be a useful strategy for promoting motivation toward goal orientation among students in academic contexts ^[21].

Self-handicapping can be a possible explanation of the positive significant correlation between goal orientation and defensive pessimism. The strategy of self-handicapping that individuals use to create excuses for failure before even attempting a task. This can involve engaging in behaviors that undermine performance, such as procrastination or not giving one's best effort, to have a ready-made excuse for failure. While self-handicapping may initially protect one's self-esteem, it ultimately hinders goal achievement and can lead to a cycle of self-fulfilling prophecies of failure ^[22].

The results of the present study indicated a statistically significant negative correlation between self-esteem and defensive pessimism. Thus, students with lower self-esteem are more likely to utilize defensive pessimism as a strategy, while those with higher self-esteem tend to use it less frequently. Conversely, students who exhibit defensive pessimism often have lower levels of self-esteem. According to the researchers. This outcome may be because a significant number of the study sample had moderate to low self-esteem. Students with low self-esteem tended to be self-critical, avoid social exposure, and perceive themselves as incompetent. In contrast, students with high self-esteem tended to actively engage in academic and extracurricular activities and strive to improve their skills and abilities.

This outcome is in line with earlier studies conducted by Ferradás (2020) and Lim (2009), which found that students with lower levels of self-esteem were more prone to utilizing the defensive pessimism approach ^[3,23]. Moreover, Yamawaki and colleagues conducted a study, where they found that individuals using defensive pessimism as a strategy would have a higher proportion of negative-to-positive self-thoughts related to academics and these thoughts would be associated with high self-esteem instability. However, the study also found that the differences in self-esteem between defensive pessimists and optimists explained part of the mediated effects ^[21].

The study's results imply that defensive pessimism can serve as a strategic tool for students with low self-esteem to approach academic work with the objective of improving their skills. The findings also support the notion that defensive pessimism plays a role in the relationship between self-esteem and motivational orientation, especially with regards to performance-approach goals. Low self-esteem may encourage students to engage in their academic work with the aim of standing out, both directly and by leveraging defensive pessimism. Furthermore, the research discovered that self-esteem is positively correlated with mastery-approach and performance-approach goals and negatively correlated with mastery-avoidance and performance-avoidance goals, which is consistent with previous studies ^[7,24].

Students who have low self-esteem might assess their academic competence by comparing themselves to their peers, which may result in doubts about their ability to outperform others and, as a result, prioritize performance-avoidance goals. Conversely, students who set high performance goals may have a significant fear of failure due to their inclination to tie their self-worth to their ability to demonstrate competence. The study also found a significant relationship between insufficient monthly expenses and defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem, suggesting that low-income students may have lower self-esteem, which motivates them to prove their intellectual abilities and improve their financial situation.

The study found that first-year university students exhibited higher levels of defensive pessimism than those in later academic years. This may be due to their enthusiasm for embarking on a new educational journey and their motivation to achieve independence and improve their performance. Adding to that, tables exhibited that participants with previous years academic failure had higher levels of defensive pessimism and goal orientation. This may possibly be due to their feeling of disappointment from previous failure and their desire to avoid repeating it.

Furthermore, students who participate in academic and extracurricular activities had a significant relationship with defensive pessimism and goal orientation, possibly due to their spending time on activities and trying to do their best in the remaining time. The outcomes of the study are in line with earlier research that discovered that low self-esteem reduces students' inclination to engage in academic activities with a learning-focused approach. ^[25,26] Finally, students who participate in extracurricular activities have been found to have higher academic success, as indicated by their higher GPA and lower absenteeism.

Finally, the current study highlights the complex relationships between defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem in nursing students. While defensive pessimism may be an effective strategy for some students, it is important to consider the potential impact on students' self-worth and motivation.

In conclusion, nursing students exhibited low levels of defensive pessimism, low level of goal orientation and moderate level of self-esteem. A positive significant association was found between defensive pessimism and goal orientation and there was a negative significant correlation found with self-esteem.

Implications

Defensive pessimism is a coping mechanism that involves setting low self-expectations to manage anxiety and stress, while goal orientation refers to the level of motivation individuals have to achieve their objectives. The study found a negative correlation between defensive pessimism and self-esteem, while goal orientation had a positive association with self-esteem among nursing students. These results suggest that nursing educators should promote a positive goal orientation and discourage the use of defensive pessimism as a coping mechanism among nursing students. Doing so could enhance their self-esteem and overall well-being, leading to better academic and clinical performance.

Additionally, the research highlights the significant role of self-esteem in nursing education and practice. Nursing students with high self-esteem may be more motivated to learn and achieve their goals, resulting in improved patient outcomes and better quality of care. Therefore, nursing educators should strive to create an environment that fosters self-esteem and encourages goal-oriented behavior among nursing students.

Limitations

Inspite of the present result which reveal the relationship between defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem among university nursing students, it is important to present its limitations.

The study's reliance on self-reported measures may introduce subjectivity and bias, which may not accurately reflect the participants' actual attitudes or behaviors. Additionally, the research was conducted in a single institution, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other nursing programs with different student populations or academic cultures.

Furthermore, the study exclusively focused on nursing students, and it is unclear whether the results would apply to other healthcare professions or students in other programs or practicing nurses. Future research should examine the connections between defensive pessimism, goal orientation, and self-esteem in a more comprehensive healthcare context to determine whether the findings are applicable beyond nursing education.

Ethical approval and consent to participate.

All methods were carried out according to the relevant guidelines and regulations of the Declaration of Helsinki (DoH-Oct2008). Study procedures were revised and approved by the research ethics committee of the faculty of nursing, Damnhour university. An informed written consent was obtained from all patients after explaining the purpose and nature of the study and who agreed to participate in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Mohamed Hussein Ramadan Atta ([email protected])

Competing interests

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Authors contributions

M.H.R.A: Methodology, investigation, and data statistical analysis, collecting data of the study, writing-original draft, and writing-review & editing. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.
E.E.R: Conceptualization, preparation, methodology, investigation formal analysis, data curation, writing-original draft, and writing-review & editing.
N.W.E: Conceptualization, preparation, methodology, investigation formal analysis, collecting data of the study, writing-original draft, and writing-review & editing.

Acknowledgements

Our sincere thanks go to all participants of the study.

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Tables 1-4 is available in the Supplementary Files section.

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The Relationship between Defensive pessimism, Goal Orientation and Self Esteem among Faculty Nursing Students

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

The research questions:

Methodology and Materials

MATERIALS

Study design:

Setting:

Subjects:

Variables of interest

METHOD

Ethical Considerations:

VII. Statistical Analysis:

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Implications

Limitations

Declarations

References

Tables

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1