Study of anthropogenic emissions in the life cycle of Body in White manufactured in new generation steels

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3324737/v1

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Study of anthropogenic emissions in the life cycle of Body in White manufactured in new generation steels

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3324737/v1

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The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the life cycle of vehicles with Body in White developed in new generation steels (New BIW), in comparison to the current steels used (Current BIW), in order to reduce the mass of the vehicle and anthropogenic emissions. The method was based on the estimation of anthropogenic emissions through simulation in Module GREET2.7, where the life cycle of vehicles with BIW developed in new generation steels (New BIW) was compared with BIW in steels currently used (Current BIW), in order to reduce the mass of the vehicle and its respective emission. As a result, a 2.65% reduction in vehicle mass was obtained, which resulted in a reduction of 0.11 tons of greenhouse gases. Just as, in the comparison of simulated emissions, between the current BIW and the new one, there is a reduction in total GHG emissions of 2.8% during the life cycle of the materials, of 3.6% during the life cycle of the Body of vehicles (BIW, interior, exterior and windows), 2.04% over the complete life cycle of vehicles and 0.78 ℓ/100 km of consumption. The conclusions show that the mass reduction of vehicles developed in new generation steels (New BIW) provides a significant change with regard to anthropogenic emissions, mainly in the vehicle use phase, due to the reduction in the burning of fossil fuels and the study provides an important decision-maker regarding the mitigation of global warming, as it is essential to recognize that motor vehicles are significant air polluters.

Body in White

Life cycle analysis

Anthropogenic emissions

New generation steels

Simulation

Consumption

The transportation sector is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, accounting for approximately one-quarter of global emissions. The automotive industry, in particular, has a significant impact on the environment, not only during the use phase but also in the manufacturing and end-of-life stages of a vehicle's lifecycle. One of the key factors influencing a vehicle's environmental impact is its weight, particularly the weight of its Body-in-White (BIW) structure. The BIW structure is the backbone of a vehicle, providing structural support and crash protection. However, the weight of the BIW structure can significantly impact a vehicle's fuel efficiency and GHG emissions. Therefore, there is a growing interest in developing lightweight BIW structures and using low-carbon materials to reduce the environmental impact of vehicles.

One approach is to use stronger materials, such as dual-phase steels, in the fabrication of the BIW structure. These materials are typically more expensive than carbon steel, but they can help to reduce the weight of the vehicle and lower its overall GHG emissions.

Similarly, the manufacturing processes used to assemble a BIW structure can have a significant impact on GHG emissions. Implementing more efficient production processes, using renewable energy sources, or reducing the amount of scrap material generated during production can all help to reduce emissions associated with BIW manufacturing.

Finally, designing vehicles with a lighter overall weight can also help to reduce GHG emissions associated with the vehicle's use phase. This can be accomplished through a variety of methods, such as using lighter weight components, optimizing the vehicle's aerodynamics, or reducing the overall size of the vehicle.

While there may be a general relationship between the mass of a BIW structure and its GHG emissions, a variety of factors, including the specific materials and manufacturing processes used, can also have a significant impact on emissions. To reduce the environmental impact of BIW production, automakers must consider the entire life cycle of the materials and processes used, and strive to implement more sustainable and efficient practices throughout the manufacturing process.

The relationship between gas emissions and road scenery can be complex and multifaceted. There are several factors that can influence the amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with driving on different types of roads, including the type of vehicle, driving habits, road conditions, and terrain.

One factor that can influence GHG emissions on different types of roads is the presence of hills or steep inclines. Driving uphill requires more energy and can therefore increase fuel consumption and GHG emissions, while driving downhill can allow the vehicle to use less fuel and emit fewer GHGs. Similarly, driving on unpaved or poorly maintained roads can also increase fuel consumption and GHG emissions due to increased rolling resistance and decreased efficiency.

In addition, the speed and style of driving can also impact GHG emissions. For example, aggressive driving behaviors such as rapid acceleration, frequent braking, and high-speed driving can increase fuel consumption and emissions. On the other hand, adopting more fuel-efficient driving habits, such as maintaining a steady speed and avoiding rapid acceleration or braking, can help to reduce GHG emissions.

In summary, while the relationship between road scenery and GHG emissions can be complex, there are a variety of factors that can influence emissions when driving on different types of roads. To reduce the environmental impact of driving, individuals can adopt more fuel-efficient driving habits, choose more efficient vehicles, and consider the impact of road conditions and terrain when planning their routes.

This paper aims to evaluate the life cycle of vehicles with Body in White developed in new generation steels (New BIW), in comparison to the current steels used (Current BIW), in order to reduce the mass of the vehicle and anthropogenic emissions.

The methodology of this study was based on the estimation of anthropogenic emissions through simulation in Module GREET2.7, where the life cycle of vehicles with BIW developed in new generation steels (New BIW) was compared with BIW in steels currently used (Current BIW), in order to reduce the mass of the vehicle and its respective emission. The vehicle lifecycle module (GREET2.7) was developed by Argonne National Laboratory, with the model of greenhouse gases, regulated emissions and energy use in transport. This module was used in this study in order to evaluate the emission associated with the recovery and production of materials, manufacture of vehicle components, vehicle assembly and vehicle disposal/recycling. With regard to vehicle assembly, Argonne's analysis used data from an energy use survey of US assembly plants that contained welding, painting, and body assembly operations. The research collected three years of data from 35 factories, with the participation of the American affiliates of GM, Ford, Honda, Toyota and Subaru (Boyd, 2005).

Emissions were analyzed using the following parameters: ICEV vehicle (Conventional Material - vehicle with an internal combustion engine), conventional material and passenger car 1.

Initially, the total masses of the current vehicle (1083 kg) and the new one (1055 kg) were transformed into pounds and then replaced in the "Car" worksheet in item 9 - "Vehicle Time Series Data and in the sub-item "Current vehicle weight sans battery and fluids (lbs).” From this, the automatic calculation operation of the GREET 2.7 equations was carried out in order to obtain an estimate of the anthropogenic emission of the current vehicle.

The results of the anthropogenic emission estimate were obtained from the Vehi_Comp_Sum and Vehi_Sum spreadsheets.

In the Vehi_Comp_Sum worksheet, which refers to the Summary of Energy Consumption and Emissions for Vehicle Components, the results were obtained through items 2 (Summary of Energy Consumption and Emissions for Vehicle Materials: per-vehicle lifetime) and 3 (Summary of Energy Consumption and Emissions by Vehicle Component: per-vehicle lifetime). For both items, the gases in Table 1 were analyzed.

Table 1

Gases analyzed in GREET2.7
Total emissions: (grams per vehicle life)	Urban emissions: (grams per vehicle life)
VOC	VOC
CO	CO
NO_x	NO_x
PM₁₀	PM₁₀
PM_2.5	PM_2.5
SO_x	SO_x
BC	BC
OC	OC
CH₄
N₂O
CO₂
CO₂ (VOC, CO, CO₂)
GHG_s

The difference between the items in the worksheet is the way in which the results are obtained. While item 2 is related to the material, item 3 is related to emissions per vehicle component. In this case, only emissions related to the body of the vehicle (BIW, interior, exterior and glass) were verified.

For the Vehi_Sum spreadsheet, which refers to the Energy Use and Emissions of Vehicle Cycle, the following items were used: 1 - Summary of Energy Consumption and Emissions: mmBtu or grams per-vehicle lifetime and 2 - Summary of Energy Consumption and Emissions of Vehicle Cycles: Btu or grams per mile.

For items 1 and 2, the following data on energy consumption and gas emissions were analyzed:

Power consumption (mmBtu):

Total energy;
Fossil fuels;
Coal;
Natural gas;
Petroleum;
Water consumption;

Gas Emissions (grams/vehicle life and grams/mile):

CO₂: Total;
CO₂ (VOC, CO, CO₂): Total;
CH₄: Total;
N₂O: Total;
GHG_s: Total;
VOC: Total;
CO: Total;
NO_x: Total
PM₁₀: Total
PM_2.5: Total
SO_x: Total
BC: Total
OC: Total
VOC: Urban
CO: Urban
NO_x: Urban
PM₁₀: Urban
PM_2.5: Urban
SO_x: Urban
BC: Urban
OC: Urban

The difference between the items resides in the fact that item 2 has its value obtained from item 1 divided by the useful life of the vehicle of 173,151 miles. The useful life value, used by GREET2.7, comes from the estimated sales of American vehicles between the years 1991 to 2015, obtained from VISION (GREET 2.7, 2017).

Among gas emissions, it is noteworthy that pollutants are separated into total and urban emissions, where total emissions are emissions that occur everywhere, while urban emissions are a subset of total emissions that occur in urban areas. In GREET, urban areas are metropolitan areas with a population greater than 125,000, as defined by the US Bureau of the Census. The separation of pollutant emission criteria is a step towards providing some information about potential human exposure to pollutant emission (Brinkman et al., 2005).

The second analysis followed the same procedure, but involved the vehicle with a mass reduction (new) and a reduction in the percentage of steel present in the vehicle, from 65.3–64.1%, as shown in Table 2.

The reduction of the percentage of steel present in the vehicle was obtained by reducing the BIW mass by 28 kg (Current 157 kg - New 129 kg) referring to the reduction in the thickness of the steel plates in the new BIW.

Thus, in the Car spreadsheet, in item 7 (Material Composition for Each Passenger Car Component, % by wt) the change in percentage was performed to the obtained value of 64.1% and, thus, the emissions data referring to this analysis, were obtained automatically.

Table 2

Percentage of steel used for body simulation of current and new vehicles
Material	Current	New	Variation
Steel	65.3%	64.1%	-1.9%
Wrought Aluminum	3.1%	3.1%	0.0%
Cast Aluminum	0.2%	0.2%	0.0%
Copper/Brass	1.9%	1.9%	0.0%
Zinc	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%
Magnesium	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%
Glass Fiber-Reinforced Plastic	0.8%	0.8%	0.0%
Glass	4.4%	4.4%	0.0%
Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Plastic	0.0%	0.0%	0.0%
Average Plastic	21.7%	21.7%	0.0%
Rubber	1.8%	1.8%	0.0%
Others	0.9%	2.1%	+ 1.2%

Table 3 and Figs. 1 and 2 show the results regarding emissions in the life cycle of materials for current and new vehicles, obtained in GREET2.7, resulting in emission reductions between 2.5 and 3.4%, respectively.

Emissions during the life cycle of the current and new vehicle Body (BIW, interior, exterior and glass) are presented in Table 4 and in Figs. 3 and 4, where reductions in emissions between 2.9 and 4 can be observed, 3%.

Table 5 and Figs. 5 and 6 show the emissions during the complete life cycle of the current and new vehicles, where reductions of up to 3.2% in gas emissions and a carbon footprint of 5.60 tons can be observed in the vehicle's life cycle for the current one and 5.49 tons for the new one.

Table 3

Results referring to emissions in the life cycle of materials for current and new vehicles
	Gases	Current (grams/vehicle life cycle)	New (grams/vehicle life cycle)	Reduction (%)
Total Emissions	VOC	2,828.50	2,750.38	2.8
	CO	14,144.93	13,665.24	3.4
	NO_x	4,051.28	3,938.46	2.8
	PM₁₀	1,519.79	1,472.37	3.1
	PM_2.5	793.70	769.34	3.1
	SO_x	10,690.91	10,357.94	3.1
	BC	19.64	19.14	2.5
	OC	47.41	46.12	2.7
	CH₄	8,840.90	8,595.95	2.8
	N₂O	108.44	105.58	2.6
	CO₂	3,534,175	3,433,596	2.8
	CO₂ (VOC, CO, CO₂)	3,565,218	3,463,642	2.8
	GHG_s	3,896,381	3,785,697	2.8
Urban Emissions	VOC	33.60	32.77	2.5
	CO	156.27	151.98	2.7
	NO_x	293.30	285.11	2.8
	PM₁₀	28.40	27.60	2.8
	PM_2.5	23.55	22.89	2.8
	SO_x	249.69	242.55	2.9
	BC	1.24	1.21	2.7
	OC	5.26	5.11	2.8

Table 4

Results referring to emissions in the vehicle body's life cycle (BIW, interior, exterior and glass) current and new.
	Gases	Current Emissions (grams/body lifecycle)	New Emissions (grams/body lifecycle)	Reduction (%)
Total Emissions	VOC	1,182.91	1,134.20	4.1
	CO	7,629.50	7,302.19	4.3
	NO_x	1,825.48	1,760.49	3.6
	PM₁₀	742.98	713.70	3.9
	PM_2.5	358.64	344.50	3.9
	SO_x	5,255.48	5,054.33	3.8
	BC	8.39	8.10	3.3
	OC	21.04	20.32	3.4
	CH₄	4,430.62	4,285.09	3.3
	N₂O	54.55	52.93	3.0
	CO₂	1,559,996	1,503,227	3.6
	CO₂ (VOC, CO, CO₂)	1,575,672	1,518,237	3.6
	GHG_s	1,731,345	1,668,896	3.6
Urban Emissions	VOC	16.23	15.76	2.9
	CO	69.73	67.47	3.2
	NO_x	127.49	123.27	3.3
	PM₁₀	12.06	11.65	3.3
	PM_2.5	10.05	9.71	3.3
	SO_x	102.54	99.06	3.4
	BC	0.53	0.51	3.2
	OC	2.31	2.23	3.4

Table 5

Results referring to emissions in the complete life cycle of current and new vehicles
		Current		New
	Gases	Grams per vehicle lifetime	Grams per mile	Grams per vehicle lifetime	Grams per mile	Difference (%)
Total Emissions	VOC	32,050.93	0.185	31,972.37	0.1847	0.24
	CO	14,993.32	0.087	14,512.06	0.0838	3.21
	NO_x	5,757.30	0.033	5,641.63	0.0326	2.00
	PM₁₀	1,842.34	0.011	1,794.50	0.0104	2.59
	PM_2.5	972.53	0.006	947.93	0.0055	2.52
	SO_x	13,002.79	0.075	12,667.29	0.0732	2.58
	BC	30.618	0.00018	30.10	0.0002	1.67
	OC	71,148	0.0004	69.80	0.0004	1.89
	CH₄	12,545.43	0.072	12,292.61	0.0710	2.01
	N₂O	145.31	0.001	142.37	0.0008	2.02
	CO₂	5,031,209	29	4,926,922	28.45	2.07
	CO₂ (VOC, CO, CO₂)	5,154,662	30	5,049,374	29.16	2.04
	GHG_s	5,606,284	32	5,491,634	31.71	2.04
Urban Emissions	VOC	19,229.05	0.111	19,228.19	0.11	0.004
	CO	289.54	0.002	284.90	0.001	1.60
	NO_x	748.72	0.004	739.79	0.004	1.19
	PM₁₀	99.71	0.001	98.82	0.0006	0.88
	PM_2.5	67.00	0.00039	66.27	0.0004	1.09
	SO_x	1,026.06	0.006	1,018.14	0.0059	0.77
	BC	4.14	0.000024	4.10	0.0000	0.89
	OC	9.97	0.00006	9.80	0.0001	1.67

Total energy, fossil fuels (coal, natural gas and oil) and water consumption in the new BIW showed reductions of up to 2.8% when compared to the current one (Table 6 and Fig. 7).

Table 6

Results referring to the consumption of energy, fossil fuels and water in the complete life cycle of current and new vehicles
	Current		New
	Grams per vehicle lifetime	Grams per mile	Grams per vehicle lifetime	Grams per mile	Reduction (%)
Total energy	81.53	470.88	79.94	461.69	1.9
Fossil fuels	73.41	424	72.01	415.92	1.9
Coal	21.37	123	20.76	119.94	2.8
Natural gas	36.04	208	35.41	204.52	1.8
Petroleum	15.99	92	15.83	91.45	1.0
Water consumption	7,408	0.043	7,227	0.041	2.4

In this study, both the emissions in the life cycle of the materials, as well as those of the Body (BIW, interior, exterior and glass) and complete vehicles of the new BIW show reductions when compared to the current BIW, either in total emissions or in emissions urban.

The evaluation of the results obtained in the context of this study showed the presence of anthropogenic emissions totaling 5.60 tons over the life cycle of the vehicle, considering the current state of Body-in-White (BIW) for total emissions, that is, those that occur anywhere. However, when performing a direct comparison with the results derived from the use of the new BIW, a global decrease in anthropogenic emissions to 5.49 tons was found. This reduction represents approximately 2%, equivalent to 0.11 tons of anthropogenic emissions, during the vehicle's life cycle. Likewise, urban emissions tend to reduce emissions when comparing the current with the new, but have a smaller representation when compared to total emissions (Table 5).

When comparing these findings with the research conducted by Refiadi et al. (2019), there is a remarkable similarity in the results. In fact, in that study, the author found that a reduction of 12.6% in the mass of the vehicle enabled a reduction of up to 3.6 tons of carbon dioxide (CO₂).

In line with these findings, the results of this study converge with the studies by Du et al. (2010), who demonstrated that a 17.7% reduction in vehicle weight contributed to a decrease of 9.5 liters per 100 km traveled (equivalent to 3.54 g/mile of CO₂). Extrapolating these numbers to a lifecycle of 173,151 miles results in a savings of 0.61 tons of CO₂. The present study, when reporting a 2.65% reduction in vehicle mass, resulted in a decrease of 0.11 tons of greenhouse gases (GHG).

Additionally, it is worth mentioning the study conducted by Tomazi (2021), which recorded a significant reduction of 480 kg in vehicle mass. This weight reduction resulted in a marked decrease of 28.64 grams per mile in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, equivalent to approximately a 30% reduction in weight for a 10% decrease in emissions. In the scenario of this case study, there is a decrease of 2.65% in vehicle mass (equivalent to 28 kg) and an estimated reduction of about 0.29 grams per mile in emissions. Therefore, it is valid to state that both studies presented congruent results, taking into account the respective investigated values.

Isenstadt et al. (2016) concluded in their studies that a reduction of about 10% in vehicle mass results in an approximate decrease of 5% in gasoline consumption. In a similar context, Helms et al. (2006) observed a 100 kg reduction in vehicle weight, resulting in a decrease in gasoline consumption of about 0.35 ℓ/100 km.

When analyzing the impact of weight reduction on fossil fuel consumption (Table 6) in the present study, a reduction of 0.78 ℓ/100 km was observed from the reduction of 28 kg. In other words, in this study the percentage reduction per kilogram is in line with expectations.

With regard to the analysis of fuel economy, the study conducted by Sun et al. (2019) evaluated the weight reduction of the BIW from 430 kg to 344 kg, i.e., a reduction of 86 kg, which resulted in a fuel economy of 653.3 liters over the entire life cycle (200,000 km) of the vehicle.

Similar studies, such as those by Simplay et al. (2016), Brooker et al. (2013) and Cheah (2010) present correlated data, indicating that a decrease of up to 25% in weight results in 10% fuel savings. Contributing to this perspective, research carried out by different authors, including Fontaras et al. (2017), Pervaiz et al. (2016), Mayyas et al. (2012) and Kulkarni et al. (2018), also highlight the relationship between the variation in vehicle mass and the consequent decrease in CO₂ emissions. These studies suggest that weight loss between 50 kg and 200 kg can generate a reduction in CO₂ emissions of around 6.5 g/km to 12 g/km, considering different conditions and operating cycles.

Therefore, based on the results of this study and evidence previously found in related research, it can be concluded that vehicle weight reduction plays a significant role in mitigating anthropogenic emissions.

This study carried out a comparative analysis of the anthropogenic emissions of the Body in White life cycle with different masses and, therefore, it was possible to identify that:

A 2.65% reduction in vehicle mass resulted in a decrease of 0.11 tonnes of greenhouse gases;
Comparing the emissions simulated in GREET 2.7, between the current BIW and the new one, there is a reduction in total GHG emissions of 2.8% during the life cycle of the materials, of 3.6% during the life cycle of the Body of vehicles (BIW, interior, exterior and windows) and 2.04% during the complete life cycle of vehicles;
The vehicle's fuel consumption was reduced by 0.78 ℓ/100 km from the 28 kg mass reduction;
The mass reduction of vehicles developed in new generation steels (New BIW) provides a significant change with regard to anthropogenic emissions, mainly in the vehicle use phase, due to the reduction in the burning of fossil fuels;
The study provides an important decision-maker regarding the mitigation of global warming and, it is essential to recognize that motor vehicles are significant atmospheric polluters.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for funding by the Federal Institute of Santa Catarina.

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Not applicable

Data availability statement

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article [and its supplementary information files].

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No competing interests reported.

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Study of anthropogenic emissions in the life cycle of Body in White manufactured in new generation steels

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