Whole-genome resequencing provides insights into the diversity and adaptation to desert environment in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3325951/v1

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Whole-genome resequencing provides insights into the diversity and adaptation to desert environment in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3325951/v1

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published 14 Feb, 2024

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Background: Xinjiang Mongolian cattle is an indigenous breed living in the Taklimakan Desert and with small body size. However, the genomic diversity, origin, and genetic basis underlying the adaptation to the desert environment have been poorly studied.

Results: We analyzed patterns of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle genetic variation by sequencing 20 genomes and comparing them to the 136 genomes of 10 representative breeds worldwide. We found the highest nucleotide diversity associated with the lower inbreeding coefficient, the lowest linkage disequilibrium, and the highest effective population size in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle. The genomic diversity pattern could be explained by the Bos taurusclade property of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle with a limited introgression of Bos indicus genes. More importantly, we identify signatures of convergent selection in desert animals (Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, camel and sheep originating from the Taklimakan Desert region) including genes, GO terms, and/or KEGG pathways controlling water reabsorption and osmoregulation, metabolic regulation and energy balance,and small body size.

Conclusions: Our results imply that Xinjiang Mongolian cattle might have acquired distinct genomic diversity by virtue of the introgression of Bos indicus, which helps understand the demographic history. The identification of selective signals can provide novel insights into the genomic basis underlying the adaptation of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle to the desert environment.

Cattle, comprising two subspecies of Bos taurus and Bos indicus, can be traced back to early domestication events that occurred approximately 8,000–10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent and 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Indus Valley Cattle [1, 2]. Subsequent to that period, the interplay of natural adaptability, human migration, and selection has led to the emergence of more than 800 distinct breeds of cattle [3]. These breeds are distinguished by their diverse purposes, coat colors, geographical distributions, and other relevant aspects.

However, owing to variations in practice across different nations as well as disparities in significance, quantity, or other factors within the same country, the definition of certain breeds remains ambiguous. One illustrative instance of such a phenomenon is represented by Mongolian cattle, mostly found in the Inner Mongolia region of China, Mongolia, and the East Siberian regions of Russia. Based on a comprehensive investigation of whole-genome sequences, it was determined that the Mongolian cattle originating from Inner Mongolia of China and Mongolia were classified under the East Asian cattle group, clustering with the Mishima and Hanwoo cattle [4], also known as Turano-Mongolian taurine. At the level of the mitochondrial genome, Mongolian cattle exhibit the presence of four distinct haplotypes (T2, T4, T4, and I) [5], indicating intricate population dynamics.

Xinjiang Mongolian cattle is another population also referred to as Mongolian cattle. It is distributed in Bayangol Mongol and Aksu of Xinjiang, China, located in the Taklimakan Desert region. This cattle population displays strong disease resistance and a small body size [6]. However, there have been limited studies conducted on Xinjiang Mongolian cattle. A SNP analysis of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) D-loop region and Y chromosome revealed two maternal origins (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) and one paternal origin (Bos taurus) in this cattle population [7]. No attempt has been made to understand the relationship between Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and other Mongolian cattle, and the genetic basis behind germplasm features in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle.

With the dramatic decrease in sequencing costs, whole genome sequence data are becoming the main source of population genetics research. One potential use of this methodology is the estimation of ancestral origins and the reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships. For example, an excellent whole-genome sequence analysis of worldwide cattle reveals five ancestries and two introgression events [8]. Another possible use lies in enhancing the comprehension of adaptive mechanisms. An excellent work unravels the environmental adaptive traits in African cattle [9]. While the sequencing of seven genomes in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle has been conducted [8], its relationship with other breeds and genomic characteristics are not focused, and the genetic basis underlying the germplasm characteristics is not analyzed.

In the present study, we sequenced the whole genomes of 20 Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and compared them to the public-available genomes of 136 samples of 10 breeds/populations (including seven genomes of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle). We not only identified the genomic diversity of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, but also reconstructed the phylogenetic relationship between Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and other nine cattle breeds/populations under intricate population dynamics. More importantly, we delved into the selective signals of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle that contribute to the germplasm features.

Animal sampling

A total of 20 Xinjiang Mongolian cattle were obtained from the preserving farm after obtaining permission from farm owner, in Heshuo County of Bayangol Mongol Prefecture of Xinjiang in China. The whole blood was collected from the jugular vein of each individual with a blood collection needle by an experienced veterinarian and then placed in a blood collection tube containing EDTA.

Genomic DNA extraction, genome sequencing, and SNP detection

The collected whole blood was delivered to the Beijing Genome Institute (Shenzhen, China). The genomic DNA was extracted using the standard phenol-chloroform procedure. The concentration of genomic DNA was assessed by a Qubit fluorometer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, USA), while the integrity of the DNA was verified using agarose gel electrophoresis. The qualified genomic DNA experienced fragmentation, size selection, end repair and "A" tailing, adapter ligation, product size selection, PCR reaction, and library quality control to construct paired-end libraries with an insert size of 350 bp for each individual. The libraries were then sequenced for 2 × 150 bp pair-end reads using the BGI-SEQ T7 platform (BGI, Shenzhen, China). The sequenced raw reads were filtered using SOAPnuke software [10] with the parameters: “-n 0.01 -l 20 -q 0.3 --adaMR 0.25 --ada_trim --polyX 50".

Based on six ancestries worldwide reported by a previous study [11], and to compare Xinjiang Mongolian cattle to other Mongolian cattle, we downloaded 136 public-available genomes of 10 breeds/populations, including 24 Angus (European taurine), 22 Swiss Brown (Eurasian taurine), 13 Muturu (African taurine), 9 Kazakh (another indigenous cattle in Xinjiang), 10 Mongolia Mongolian, 14 Inner Mongolia Mongolian, 21 Hanwoo (East Asian taurine), 7 Nelore (Indian indicine) and 9 Leiqiong cattle (Chinese indicine) from the NCBI SRA database (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1). The downloaded reads were filtered using Trimmomatic [12] with the parameters: “LEADING:20 TRAILING:20 SLIDINGWINDOW:3:15 AVGQUAL:20 MINLEN:35 TOPHRED33”.

The clean reads were aligned to the Bos taurus reference assembly ARS-UCD1.2 using the BWA MEM algorithm [13] with the default parameters. The aligned file were sorted on their coordinates and duplicates were marked using the SortSam and MarkDuplicates modules of the Picard software.

The BaseRecalibrator and PrintReads modules of GATK [14] were exploited to produce a base quality recalibration table and recalibrate the aligned BAM files. The HaplotypeCaller, CombineGVCFs, GenotypeGVCFs and SelectVariants modules of GATK were sequentially utilised for the purpose of SNP calling. The raw SNPs were filtered using VariantFiltration modules of GATK with the following parameters: “QD < 2.0||FS > 60.0||MQ < 40.0||MQRankSum < − 12.5||ReadPosRankSum < − 8.0||SOR > 3.0”.

General genomic characteristic

The nucleotide diversity of each breed was calculated using VCFtools [15], employing a window size of 50 Kb and a step size of 20 Kb. The identification of runs of homozygosity (ROH) in each individual was performed using PLINK [16] with the following parameters: “--homozyg --allow-no-sex --homozyg-window-snp 50 --homozyg-window-het 1 --homozyg-window-missing 5 --homozyg-density 50 --homozyg-kb 1000 --homozyg-snp 100”. The inbreeding coefficient based on runs of homozygosity (F_ROH) was calculated for each individual as the ratio of the total length of ROH segments to the length of the autosomal genome. The average linkage disequilibrium (r²) for each length of distance for each breed was calculated using PopLDdecay [17]. In addition, the estimation of the recent effective population size (Ne) for each breed was conducted using SNeP [18] with the default settings.

Population structure and phylogenetic analysis

Principle component analysis (PCA) of whole-genome SNPs for two sets: all 156 individuals and 140 Bos taurus individuals, was performed using smartpca modules of EIGENSOFT [19]. A neighbor-joining (NJ) tree was constructed using MEGA11 [20] based on the Hamming genetic distance matrix obtained by PLINK. A maximum likelihood tree was constructed using treemix [21], where the number of anticipated migration events (m) varied from 0 to 10. The optimal number of assumed migration events was determined using the OptM method [22]. In addition, the process of estimating ancestry was conducted using the ADMIXTURE algorithm [23], where the range of presumed genetic clusters K varied from 2 to 5.

Detection of selective sweeps

In order to elucidate the genomic patterns of adaptation to desert environments, we employed three different methodologies to identify selection signatures in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle. This involved comparing the genomes of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle to those of Mongolia Mongolian and Inner Mongolia Mongolian cattle, which served as the control group. First, the nucleotide diversity (π) of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and its counterpart was computed using VCFtools. Subsequently, the π ratio, derived by dividing the nucleotide diversity of the control group by that of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, was determined. Second, the calculation of the genome-wide distribution of F_ST values was performed using VCFtools. Third, the clean SNPs underwent further filtering using VCFtools with the following parameters: "--min-alleles 2 --max-alleles 2 --max-missing 0.9". Subsequently, the imputation and phasing processes were carried out using Beagle [24]. The cross-population extended haplotype homozygosity (XP-EHH) score for every site was calculated using selscan and then was normalized using the norm module of selscan [25]. The average normalized XP-EHH score for each window was defined as the XP-EHH statistic. The window size and step size for the π ratio, F_ST, and XP-EHH statistic were consistent, with both being set at 50 Kb and 20 Kb, respectively. Finally, the outlier regions supported by two or three approaches (top 1%) were defined as candidate regions under positive selection and then annotated using a custom perl script based on the annotation GFF file of the Bos taurus reference genome. Based on the candidate genes under selection, the functional enrichment tests of the Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways and Gene Ontology (GO) database were performed using the DAVID server [26].

Summary of sequencing and SNP detection

Whole-genome sequencing of 20 samples of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle generated a total of 4.7 billion reads with an average depth of 12.80X (12.76–12.84X). The average sequence depth was 11.56X (10.45–12.33X) for seven publicly available genomes of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and 12.48X (4.93–34.18X) for the remaining 129 publicly available genomes of nine breeds/populations (Supplementary Table 1).

Combining the genomes of Xiangjiang Mongolian cattle and other nine breeds/populations, a total of 60,029,014 SNPs were identified. The majority of the SNPs were found in the intergenic region (59.47%), followed by intronic regions (37.33%), while only a small number of the SNPs (0.98%), with 223825 non-synonymous SNPs and 336245 synonymous SNPs, were found in exonic regions (Supplementary Table 2).

Genome diversity

The highest nucleotide diversity was observed in Bos indicus (Leiqiong and Nelore cattle), followed by three Mongolian cattle populations, Kazakh and Hanoo cattle, while the lowest nucleotide diversity was observed in two commercial Bos taurus (Swiss Brown and Angus cattle) and Muturu cattle (Fig. 2A). In ROH, the Bos indicus breeds showed the lowest inbreeding coefficient, while two commercial Bos taurus showed the highest inbreeding coefficient, other six breeds/populations are in the middle (Fig. 2B). LD analysis showed that the highest average LD (r²) was found in Muturu cattle, followed by two commercial Bos taurus breeds, Mongolia Mongolian, Inner Mongolia Mongolian, Kazakh, Nelore and Hanwoo cattle, while the lowest average LD was found in Leiqiong and Xinjiang Mongolian cattle at the time of the short distance between SNPs. The LD analysis also showed the fastest decay in the two commercial Bos taurus breeds (Fig. 2C). In addition, the highest Ne was found in Xinjiang Mongolian and Hanwoo cattle, while the lowest Ne was found in Nelore and Mongolia Mongolian cattle in the recent generations ago (Fig. 2D).

Population structure

PCA for all 156 samples revealed the first principal component (PC1) and the second principal component (PC2), explaining 16.25% and 4.73% of the total variation, respectively. This analysis successfully distinguished Bos taurus, Leiqiong, and Nelore cattle (Fig. 3A). Within the Bos taurus subspecies, the first two principal components (PCs) explained 3.46% and 2.82% of the overall variation, respectively. These PCs primarily reflected distinctions among three distinct clusters: European commercial breeds (Angus and Swiss Brown cattle), Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, and African Muturu cattle. The remaining four breeds/populations occupied an intermediate position in this regard (Fig. 3B). The maximum likelihood tree with the best number of migration events (Supplementary Fig. 1) provided evidence for the gene flow from Bos indicus into Xinjiang Mongolian cattle (Fig. 3C). Meanwhile, the genetic differentiation (F_ST) observed between Xinjiang Mongolian cattle and Bos indicus was comparatively smaller when compared to the differentiation shown between other Bos taurus populations and Bos indicus (Fig. 3D). The NJ tree displayed two distinct groups, namely Bos taurus and Bos indicus. Among the Bos taurus group, Xinjiang Mongolian cattle had the closest genetic connection with Bos indicus (Fig. 3E). In addition, at K = 4, the most reasonable biological interpretation (Supplementary Fig. 2), Xinjiang Mongolian, Mongolia Mongolian, Inner Mongolia Mongolian and Kazakh cattle have four genomic compositions, and among these four populations, Xinjiang Mongolian cattle demonstrate the highest degree of Bos indicus inheritance (Fig. 3F).

Selective signals in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle

To identify the genomic regions under selection in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, we compared their genomes to the genomes of Mongolia Mongolian and Inner Mongolian cattle using the π ratio, F_ST, and XP-EHH. After merging consecutive outlier windows supported by two or three approaches, a total of 91 unique regions containing 127 genes were identified (Fig. 4A, 4B, and 4C, Supplementary Table 3).

In the functional enrichment analysis of the 127 candidate selected genes, we identified four over-represented GO terms (adjusted P-value < 0.05). The most significant GO term was oxidoreductase activity. Other significant enrichments included ATPase binding, NAD + ADP-ribosyltransferase activity, and iron ion binding. Genes related to branching morphogenesis of an epithelial tube, protein ADP-ribosylation, L-lysine transmembrane transporter activity, arginine transmembrane transporter activity, L-ornithine transmembrane transporter activity, and heme binding were also enriched (Supplementary Table 4). In addition, the enrichment analysis of the KEGG pathway was performed, resulting in four metabolic related pathways in the top 10 significant categories (Supplementary Table 5), including linoleic acid metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, metabolic pathways, and purine metabolism.

Among 91 putatively selected regions, the cytochrome P450 family involved in oxidoreductase activity showed an extreme π ratio and XP-EHH, including four genes (LOC107132327, LOC521656, LOC530929, LOC511936). Other interesting genes with selective signals included those with water reabsorption and osmoregulation (PDE11A, DIS3L2, SLIT2, KCNIP4, OSGEP, PKHD1, LOC617141, LOC112442378, LOC527385, TPH1, FECH, LOC107132327, LOC521656, LOC530929, LOC511936, CLIC4, FGF10), metabolic regulation and energy balance (NCSTN, PEX19, PDE4D, TOR1AIP2, TOR1AIP1, ART1, PARP6, PARP2, LOC407145), and small body size (PPARGC1A, NPPC, APPL2, DOCK5, SLC30A8) (Fig. 4D).

In this study, we compared the genomes of 27 Xinjiang Mongolian cattle (20 resequenced and seven publicly available genomes) to the 129 genomes of nine representative breeds worldwide. Our exploration of the cattle variome and selective signals focused specifically on genomic diversity, breed origin, and candidate selected genes responsible for the adaptation to the desert environment in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle.

Compared with other Bos taurus breeds, our Xinjiang Mongolian cattle have the highest nucleotide diversity associated with the lower inbreeding coefficient, the lowest linkage disequilibrium, and the highest effective population size (except for Hanwoo cattle between generations ago of 54 and 454). This unique diversity pattern could be influenced by certain historical demography such as hybridisation with or introgression from different bovine species or subspecies. In addition, we also observed the highest nucleotide diversity of Bos indicus with lower artificial selection or introgression from different bovine species [8], the faster LD decay of commercial European taurine with stronger artificial selection suggested by the highest inbreeding coefficient [4] and the lowest nucleotide diversity of African Muturu cattle [27].

The findings from the PCA and NJ tree indicate that the Xinjiang Mongolian cattle can be classified within the Bos taurus cluster. Additionally, the estimation of ancestry and the construction of a phylogeny considering potential migration events suggest the occurrence of gene flow from Bos indicus into the Xinjiang Mongolian cattle population. This observation is supported by the lowest level of genetic differentiation observed in the Xinjiang Mongolian cattle when compared to the relationships between Bos taurus populations and Bos indicus. The aforementioned findings may provide an explanation for the notably high nucleotide diversity observed in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle within the Bos taurus species.

The most crucial attribute of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle is their adaptability to the desert environment. The identification of candidate genes under selection is of significant importance in elucidating the genetic basis underlying the well-adapted characteristics of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle residing in desert environments. Among the candidate selected genes identified by two or three approaches, functional enrichment analysis showed the most significance of oxidoreductase activity, consisting of four genes of the cytochrome P450 family 2, subfamily J. The cytochrome P450 enzymes, a type of monooxygenase with a prosthetic group of heme-iron, are involved in the metabolism of arachidonic acid, the secretion of the final metabolites in urine or bile, and the transformation of a potent vasodilator of renal preglomerular vessels stimulating water reabsorption [28]. Among these families, the CYP2J2 activity has been demonstrated to be regulated by high-salt diet [29]. It is noteworthy that in camel whose most distinctive feature is the adaptation to the desert environment, the number of the copies of CYP2J is higher than that in cattle, horse and human [30–32]. The above findings indicate that CYP2J subfamily genes may be important factors in the adaptation of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle to the desert environment.

As has been said, kidneys play a major role in the process of water reabsorption through increasing the osmolarity of urine. We surveyed published literature and identified several selected genes associated with the kidney or urinary system. PDE11A gene along with extreme π ratio and XP-EHH encodes a dual-specificity phosphodiesterase and is expressed in adrenal cortex. It has been reported that a germline mutation at PDE11A locus is associated with adrenocortical hyperplasia in human [33]. DIS3L2 gene also along with extreme π ratio and XP-EHH, encodes an exoribonuclease, and its germline mutations caused the Perlman syndrome with kidney abnormalities [34]. Among the selection candidates in our list are SLIT2 (a ligand in ureteric bud and metanephric mesenchyme) in which the mutations confer for congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract in human [35], KCNIP4 a potassium channel–interacting protein whose translocation implicates renal cell cancer [36], OSGEP enabling N(6)-L-threonylcarbamoyladenine synthase activity and metal ion binding activity and associated with a renal defect manifesting in proteinuria and hypomagnesemia [37], CLIC4 a cytosolic protein in which null mouse embryos exhibit impaired renal tubulogenesis [38], FGF10 a multifunctional FGF family member implicated renal ischemia/reperfusion injury [39] and ureter and kidney development [40], and PKHD1 a large transmembrane protein fibrocystin involved in polycystic kidney disease [41]. Notably, the GO term of branching morphogenesis of an epithelial tube (PKHD1, CLIC4, SLIT2, FGF10) was enriched, which is critical to ureteric bud formation and epithelial branching during kidney development [42]. Moreover, the enrichment analysis also showed three GO terms (including three genes LOC617141, LOC112442378, LOC527385) associated with transmembrane transporter activity involved in osmoregulation in the renal medulla in camel [43]. In addition, an overrepresentation of categories associated with iron ion and heme binding was also detected, including six genes (TPH1, FECH, LOC107132327, LOC521656, LOC530929, LOC511936). In fact, similar GO terms were also detected in enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes between water-restricted and normal condition in renal cortical and medullary of bactrian camel [43]. Similarly, an excellent study also revealed several selected genes related to renal vasodilation, ion transmembrane transport, water-salt metabolism, and bicarbonate absorption in Taklimakan Desert sheep [44]. From the above results, we can conclude that these genes could have been affected by selection targeting at water reabsorption and osmoregulation during the adaptation to desert environment.

The scarcity of food in desert environments presents a secondary barrier to adaptation, hence emphasizing the significance of energy and metabolism. The second-ranked GO term identified by enrichment analysis is ATPase binding, which is related to catalyze the hydrolysis of ATP, a key player in biological energy capture and use, including five genes (NCSTN, PEX19, PDE4D, TOR1AIP2, TOR1AIP1). The third-ranked GO term is NAD + ADP-ribosyltransferase activity involved in cellular energy levels [45], including four genes (ART1, PARP6, PARP2, LOC407145). Moreover, four of the top 10 KEGG pathways identified by enrichment analysis are related to metabolism, and one of them is arachidonic acid metabolism which is also implicated in adaptation to desert environments in camel and sheep [32, 44], including four genes (LOC107132327, LOC521656, LOC530929, LOC511936). Therefore, we could speculate that these genes, GO terms, or pathways may play a role in metabolic regulation and energy balance in desert environment adaptations.

For animals living in extreme environments, small body size could help overcome the challenge of scarce food supply by virtue of lower metabolic requirement and less energy consumption [44, 46]. After reviewing published literature on candidate selected genes, a total of five genes were found to be associated with body size traits. One interesting observation was the presence of PPARGC1A with strong signal of selection. PPARGC1A encodes a transcriptional coactivator that regulates the genes involved in energy metabolism and plays an important role in insulin signaling, mitochondrial regulation and adaptive thermogenesis [47–49]. Its mutations have been reported to be associated with body mass index in human [50]. Another candidate gene is NPPC, a natriuretic peptide that regulates endochondral ossification of the cartilaginous selected growth plate, in which SNP markers are associated with human height [51]. Other noteworthy genes in our candidate list were APPL2, an adiponectin receptor associated with overweight and obesity in a Chinese population [52], DOCK5, a susceptibility gene for severe obesity [53], and SLC30A8, a zinc efflux transporter implicated in type 2 diabetes and obesity in Asians [54]. All the above findings indicate that these genes are strong candidates contributing to the small body size responsible for adaptation to desert environments in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle.

This study reports the current genetic status and novel insights on the adaptation of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle in the Taklimakan Desert using whole-genome sequence data. The unique diversity pattern observed advances our understanding of historical population dynamics in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle. The phenomenon of convergent selection in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle, camel, and sheep, which involves the regulation of water reabsorption, energy balance, and small body size, is indicative of their heightened adaptation to desert environments. This observation offers valuable insights into the genetic mechanisms that underlie the process of environmental adaptation.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All animal treatments were according to the recommendation of the Regulations for the Administration of Affairs Concerning Experimental Animals of China, and approved by the Animal Care Committee of Xinjiang Agricultural University. All methods are reported in accordance with ARRIVE guidelines for the reporting of animal experiments.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

Whole genome sequencing data of Xinjiang Mongolian cattle have been successfully submitted to the National Center for Biotechnology Information. SRA data: PRJNA844484.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Funding

This research was sponsored by Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (2022D01A64).

Authors’ contributions

Lei Xu: Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing-original draft. Kaiqing Zhou: Formal analysis. Xixia Huang: Supervision. Hong Chen: Writing – review & editing. Hong Dong: Investigation, Resources. Qiuming Chen: Conceptualization, Data curation, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Whole-genome resequencing provides insights into the diversity and adaptation to desert environment in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle

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Abstract

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Materials and Methods

Animal sampling

Genomic DNA extraction, genome sequencing, and SNP detection

General genomic characteristic

Population structure and phylogenetic analysis

Detection of selective sweeps

Results

Summary of sequencing and SNP detection

Genome diversity

Population structure

Selective signals in Xinjiang Mongolian cattle

Discussion

Conclusions

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References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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Journal Publication

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