Climate adaption strategies using socio-ecological linkages for grassland wetland ecotones in India

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3327041/v1

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Climate adaption strategies using socio-ecological linkages for grassland wetland ecotones in India

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3327041/v1

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From the current understanding on climate science to leading the attention to grasslands, wetlands, and grassland-wetland ecotones, in this paper, we are deriving socio-ecological linkages for nature climate solutions ecosystem like grasslands, wetlands, and grassland-wetland ecotones. The novelty of the study lies in its focus on addressing climate change impacts on grassland-wetland ecosystems from an intersectoral perspective. It aims to understand the linkages between ecological systems, social systems (such as livelihoods and policies), and climate adaptation strategies. We have reviewed, interlinked, and presented potential linkages to factor verticals, existing linkages, and mapping opportunities for socio-ecological indicators in grasslands, wetlands, and grassland-wetland ecotones as they are integral ecological systems supporting lives and livelihood. Our findings are a result of thematic literature review using research articles, published reports, and secondary sources for inter-linkages. We present three critical vertical for climate change adaptation in ecotones, and map the existing inter-linkages connecting the critical vertical for grassland wetland ecotones in particular with livelihood and policy. The outcomes of this paper will help in sustainable planning and management of wetlands and grasslands.

Grassland

wetland

ecotones

climate change adaptation

nature climate solutions

1.1 Ecological systems and its interactions with climate change

The effect on natural ecosystems, especially forests due to anthropogenic and development pressures are instrumental for highlighting various climatic stressors such as rainfall, water use efficiency, and vegetation (Ravindranath and Sukumar 1998, Lin et al 2021). Research studies and advocacy have driven global attention towards climate action and consequence, helped internalize a collective anthropogenic guilt, and collective outlook towards climate resilience which is the ability to fight against disturbances with strong linkages between climate adaptation and policy (Downing et al., 2002; Sudding 2016). Apart from technological solutions to climate change, there are nature based solutions as well to address climatic stress and meet sustainable development goals (WBSCD and N4C 2019, World Bank 2021, UNCCD 2022). World Bank (2021) defines nature based solutions as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively to provide human well being and biodiversity benefits. They are one of the most apparent, natural, and neglected solutions to climate change. Forests ecosystems are reported to be a source of 40% of the current carbon storage in terrestrial fields, and potential to reduce GHG emissions (WRI 2000, UNCCD 2022, UNEP 2022). Nature based solution is one of the ecosystem based adaptation mechanisms to fight climatic pressures and meet sustainable development goals (UNCCD 2021). The deleterious impact of climate change cannot be restricted to one type of phenotypic expression, physiological mechanism, metabolic activity, or disruption for an individual of a species, in a living system, in a particular habitat. Rather, the manifestation of climate change impact is expressed in more than one ecological system, single species, physiological or metabolic activity for all species throughout habitats from Antarctic biota. Studies conducted on Antarctic biota provide scope for fundamental study untouched by anthropogenic interference. Impact of climate change with time was correlated for squids lifespan with increased breeding season time, and overall reduced life span (Clarke et al 2007, Pecl and Jackson 2008, Gedan et al 2011). Recognition of elements contributing to change is the first and foremost step in climate science. Thereafter the changes observed in soil, air, and land affects the living systems. In turn the action of the living system, particularly human-led or anthropogenic action causes rise in emissions (Hill et al 2001, Hare et al 2016). These are not standalone interactions and thus could be viewed within the umbrella of climate science for biophysical or biochemical parameters. Recent trends have included continued study of sulphate and aerosol activity for emissions in air chemistry for tropospheric warming, stratospheric cooling, ice caps datasets like global sea ice and sea surface temperature datasets for better spatial coverage of oceans and sea, accounting for anthropogenic sources, and carbon capture mechanisms in soil, forests using satellite data to substantiate where mitigation and adaptation measures could be taken into account, monitor activities be it for mining or afforestation activities for ecological system (Hall and Scurlock 1991, Hill et al 2001, Chen et al 2019, Lelieveld et al 2019, Yoro et al 2020). The correlation of atmospheric changes to that of biological interaction is where we focus the scope of climate science for ecological systems.

Ecological ecosystems are classified as forest, woodlands, shrublands, tundra, savannahs, grasslands, freshwater and marine, wetlands, agro-ecosystem (WRI 2000, UNCCD 2021). As the ecological systems are dynamic, there exists uniqueness of individual species and their interaction with change in the climate (Sudding 2016). Nutrient availability and biogeochemical cycling leads to changes in the mutual interaction of plants and animals with microbiota in the terrestrial ecosystems (Hall and Scurlock 1991, UNEP 2020). Minute changes cellular interaction with change in physical and chemical surroundings lead to changes in food dynamics, ecosystem services, for species diversity, and as a threat to terrestrial or marine species diversity with change in climate indirectly (Adve 2019, Malhi et al 2019, Fawzy et al 2020, WMO 2021). The direct adverse impact of climate change on ecological systems has been acknowledged as a threat to coastal ecosystem, marine and terrestrial biodiversity, productivity, and yield for dependent tribal and local population, threats to endemic and existing species, efficacy of species conservation, habitat fragmentation, increased human animal conflicts for resource partitioning, and rate of extinction (Malhi et al 2019). The categorical impacts of climate change on various classified ecological systems for arctic and tundra, marine ecosystem, grasslands and wetlands, tropical and temperate forests, soil microbiota in agricultural ecosystem are tremendous in extent, highlighted with studies showcasing changes in temperature, rainfall, salinity, habitat fragmentation, evolutionary adaptation (Poloczanska et al 2013). The entire approach to species conservation, management of natural resources at the local, national, or global scale are influenced by increased knowledge, action, and implementation towards species, ecosystem recovery, and biodiversity safe climate action, and awareness (Sudding 2016). Integration of climate science and nature based solutions for livelihood can achieve Raul’s statement for moving closer to fair, equitable, or effective society (Badola and Hussain, 2005, WBCSD and N4C 2019, Lin et al 2021, World Bank 2021). Overall in the paper we outline critical verticals for climate adaptation strategies for ecotones. Using these verticals and literature available, we present the socio-ecological linkages for grassland wetland ecotones.

2.1 Grasslands ecosystem, climate change impact, and adaptation

Of the various agro-ecological or forest systems, grasslands constitute 53,544 sq Km which is close to a range of 20–40% of the global landmass and as per another estimate 26% of the global landmass with sub-saharan Africa and Asia accounting for the maximum share with14.500 sq Km and 8.900 sq Km respectively (WRI 2000, Kemp et al 2012,). Globally, grasslands provide employment opportunities to over 800 million people for livestock and forage (Leisher et al 2012). Defining a grassland has not been an easy task for ecologists, classifying attempts have been on the degrees of vegetation and/or animal presence or the physical parameters; one accepted definition is a piece of land constituting less than 10 percent tree cover (WRI 2000, Dixon et al 2014). Grasslands are characterized as tropical and subtropical savannas, steppes, prairie, shrubland, mediterranean shrubland, temperate grasslands, savannahs, and tundra (Singh et al 1983, WRI 2000, Allen et al 2011, Rawat and Adhikari 2015). Considering their ecological role and services, source of bioenergy, and importance in conservation of biodiversity, a new framework for classification, distribution has been suggested in the work of Dixon et al (2014). In order to channel resources towards conservation and management of grasslands-the sub parameters include non-wetland formation with vascular vegetation, graminoides forming at least 10% and 25%, shrubs and trees cover less than 25% and 10% (Dixon et al 2014). Presence of few common grasses over a wide range of geographies is associated with either invasiveness or adaptability (Singh et al 1983). Over the years, few of the grasses belonging to poaceae have evolved as agrarian crops in the present day like rice, rye, sorghum, maize originated as Grassland crops (WRI 2000). In India, 50% of animals are dependent on grasslands (Roy and Singh 2013).

Climate change impacts over 15 million years of grassland distribution with C4 grasses in the tropical grassland ecosystem (Hall and Scurlock 1991, Ravindranath and Gadgil 1998, Dixon et al 2014). Apart from industrial sources, anthropogenic factors contributing to climate change have been highlighted for natural systems (Hill et al 2001, Roxy et al 2017, Adve 2019, Gibson and Newman 2019). Anthropogenic conversion of grasslands is a source of methane and nitrous oxide, such as in temperate grasslands where in grassland to cropland and pasture land contributes to an estimated 20% emissions (Noble 1993, WRI 2000, Hopkins and Prado 2007). The ecological changes are measured using parameters such as changes in desertification, fire incidents, net primary productivity, localized loss of native species in numbers and threat to their existence, imbalance in prey-predator availability leading to change in niche and foraging habits, widespread species loss throughout the century (UNEP 2020). This is understood vis-a-vis climate change, continued heat and water stress due to warmer temperature, increased summer drought, heat waves; erratic rainfall, floods, droughts, and wildfires with varying degrees and impacts for these agro-ecological ecosystems across agro-climatic zones of various countries (Noble 1993, Ravindranath and Sukumar, 1998, WRI 2000). Similar to the case of agricultural crops, there are reports of enhanced production in grasslands of Europe but with threats of increased fragmentation, land use changes, invasive species, agricultural intensification, and species loss, productivity concerns, and irrigation concerns, shifts in balance among functional groups cannot be ignored (Hopkins and Prado 2007, Gibson and Newman 2019). Grasslands are home to some majestic species and vegetation in India. The varieties of grasses found in the Indian subcontinent within protected or unprotected areas in India have been carefully tended to attract conservation efforts towards their protection and simultaneously protection of their grassland habitat (Singh 1983, Hopkins and Prado 2007). The sustenance of grasslands is important for the communities dependent on them for source of livelihood, passage, socio-cultural or traditional knowledge (Roy and Singh 1993). Conservation of grasslands is essential to support flora and fauna it represents, to act as carbon sink, for nutrient availability, cycling, uptake, utilization, and overall health of the ecosystem (Noble 1993, Ogle et al 2004). Grasslands provide niche habitat to support tourism, recreation, and livelihoods (Ogle et al 2004). Climate science adaptation is an extension of climate impacts and climate assessments. This is supported by persistent climate change dialogue which has attracted finance for scientific research, environment, and social action. Grasslands, wetlands, and grasslands wetlands ecotones occupy close to 2.57 million square kilometers on the earth surface. They are unique ecosystem, support biodiversity, and provide ecosystem services inclusive of local livelihoods. When it comes to grasslands, wetlands, climate change effects are quantified using metrics like biomass yield, species diversity, population, food chain, and food network within ecosystems. Critical ecological concern due to climate change point of view includes succession, plant species establishment, habitat health, and ecosystem functioning in understanding climate change for an ecological system such as ecotones.

2.2 Wetland ecosystem-ecology impacted by climate change

Climate change poses a significant threat to wetlands, which play a vital role in protecting biodiversity (Hale et al 2016). Recognition of this led to the creation of the Ramsar Convention in 1971, an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands (Bhatta et al 2016). To date, there are 2,492 Ramsar sites have been designated in 172 countries, covering an area of 2.56 million square kilometers (Ramsar Convention, 2021). According to the convention, wetlands are defined as areas consisting of a range of non-grass species, such as marshes, peatlands, fens, or water bodies, whether natural or artificial, permanent, or temporary, flowing or static, fresh or brackish or salt, including marine water depths of which do not exceed six meters (Bhatta et al 2016). In India, there are 75 Ramsar wetland sites, with the oldest being Chilika lake, declared in 1981, and recent additions including Tso Kar and Asan in Ladakh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand, respectively (Ramsar Convention, 2021). Wetlands serve a variety of important functions, including wave attenuation, ecosystem management, shoreline protection, marine nutrient cycling, geomorphology, and the prevention of erosion damage (Pecl and Jackson 2007, Gedan et al 2011, Hale et al 2016). They also support fisheries and invertebrates population distribution, provide livelihood, and tourism opportunities (Gedan et al., 2011), and have aesthetic and cultural value (Badola and Hussain 2005). Coastal wetlands, such as mangrove forests, also play a critical role in mitigating the effects of climate change (Gedan et al 2011). Studies have suggested that mature mangrove forests can tolerate wind speeds of up to 150 km/h (93 mph) and that mangroves can withstand wind speeds of up to 120 km/h (75 mph) (Gedan et al 2011). These ecosystems provide important services and are sensitive to upland-marshland changes as ecotones (Wasson 2013). Mangroves not only maintain ecosystem health, but they also provide livelihood opportunities to the local population and support climate resilience (Badola and Hussain, 2005). Therefore, it is essential to implement conservation measures to protect and sustain wetlands as they play a critical role in mitigating the impacts of climate change and preserving biodiversity (Hale et al 2016, Gedan et al 2011, Pecl and Jackson 2007, Badola and Hussain 2005). Hence, working with communities for adaptation strategies is co-current to contemporary climate change challenges in wetland ecosystem.

2.3 Nature based solutions for grassland-wetland ecotone

An ecotone is a gradient between two ecosystems distinguished by predominant plant communities, it can also be explained like a transition between two distinct species of plants for example in the case of grasslands and wetlands, the Poaceae family dominates the grassland ecosystem whereas the non grass family or non graminoides dominate the wetland species, it is also a transition in terms of habitat, a grassland is a complete terrestrial habitat whereas wetland constitute a water based medium for diversity either stagnant or flowing and leads to more often than not ocean or marine ecosystem. However, it would be a misnomer to think of wetlands acting always as a transition between land and ocean as there are wetland locked in the middle of a landmass and are fresh water based wetland like the Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir, India. When it comes to studying these ecotones, with respect to climate science apart from traditional tool of measuring habitat and ecosystem health, remote sensing, Geographic Information System and more recently Google earth engine are proving to be useful tool to study, analyze, and recommend strategies to better mitigate, adapt and be more climate resilient (Dixon et al 2014). The traditional ecological tools used to highlight reasons, impacts, and studies enumerating threats to either a single species or the management of species, population distribution, communities, protected area and bio-geographies due to changing climate are done through time series data, biomass yield, species enumeration and inventory (Hale et al 2016). The remote sensing methods have been used to highlight spatial distribution of vegetation pattern, and is useful for juxtaposing current and past distribution of the grassland landscape in terms of energy flow, hydrology, ecosystem services, and disturbance regime providing a bird eye view to ecologists doing conceptual and field work either closely with a species or within a fragment or multiple fragment of the ecosystems and have gained popularity in semblance with their application in multiple fields for (Dixon et al 2014). In order to extend and adapt to the importance of socio-cultural or socio-ecological values associated with such landscapes, it would be interesting to see the dependent livelihood, their approach towards climate adaptation, if any recognized through traditional knowledge systems or through modern sources of livelihood.

Nature based solutions are defined as, “Wide range of protection and management of natural and semi-natural ecosystems, the incorporation of green and blue infrastructure in urban areas, and the application of ecosystem based principles to agricultural systems” (Seddon 2020). Agriculture and agriculture allied fields such as fisheries, livestock, sericulture, apiculture, poultry, and non-timber fuelwood are a source of income generation for the local communities. Another way of looking at these activities is to see their source which is nature and their generation is through natural functions, interlinkages, interaction, activities within an ecosystem and outside of an ecosystem. Through this we are trying to imply the creation of recognized sources of income generation or livelihood are based on nature and natural services which have been in ecological parlance coined as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services, the term coined by Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1981) are identified as provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting. The conceptual importance of ecosystem services lies in the association of the sustenance or generation of livelihood in and around a natural habitat. These sustenance supportive activities or ecosystem services are threatened due to lack of conservation efforts in a diversity rich area or neglected habitats such as grasslands and wetlands (Ehrlich and Mooney 1983). The ecosystem services and associated livelihood threatened by climate change in grasslands and wetlands could be negated by nature based solution (Gibson and Newman 2019).

2.4 Management practices, livelihood-market mechanisms, and finance for nature climate solutions

Nature-based solutions (NBS) for climate change adaptation, such as managing ecotones through habitat restoration and conservation, have been recognized as a sustainable response to climate vulnerabilities and as nature climate solutions (Seddon 2019). Effective management practices, livelihood-market mechanisms, and finance are crucial for implementing and scaling up nature climate solutions. Effective management practices include monitoring and evaluation systems to assess the effectiveness of nature climate solution as well as adaptive management approaches that allow for adjustments to be made as conditions change (Bhatta et al 2016). Livelihood-market mechanisms can include payments for ecosystem services, in which landowners are compensated for the benefits that their ecosystems provide to others, or the development of markets for products derived from sustainably managed ecosystems (Hunter 2007). These mechanisms can ensure that the implementation of nature climate solutions is inclusive and equitable, and that local communities are able to benefit from them.

Finance for nature climate solutions can come from a variety of sources, including government funding, private sector investments, and international climate finance (UNEP 2020, UNCCD 2021). It is important to ensure that finance is directed towards projects that are sustainable, equitable, and based on the participation of local communities. Financial instruments for nature climate solution can include: pollinator conservation, farm subsidies, fisheries and assisted colonization (Hunter 2007). The potential of NBS has been highlighted by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and the Nature for Climate (WBCSD and N4C 2019) who have stated adaptation strategies could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by a third by 2030. The potential of nature climate solutions can be unlocked by involving local communities and enhancing their livelihoods, improving the natural aesthetics of the area and providing benefits for human health and carbon tradeoffs (Weiskopf 2021). Thus, solutions or adaptation strategies for managing ecotones have a significant potential to be a sustainable response to climate vulnerabilities by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, improving livelihoods, and providing opportunities for carbon sequestration. Effective management practices, livelihood-market mechanisms, and finance enable implementation and scaling up of these solutions (Hunter 2007). The involvement of local communities, the use of financial instruments and the consideration of ecosystem connectivity are crucial factors for the successful implementation of these solutions (Bhatta et al 2016). The findings of this study underscore the importance of investing in adaptation strategies as a means to address climate change, and the need for continued research to better understand the potential of climate solutions and how to effectively implement them.

The international directives such as Sustainable Development Goals, Aichi Targets call for diversion of policy instruments for conservation (Seddon 2019). Realization of non technical solutions and economic instruments to support addressing climate change is a result of interdisciplinary or political ecology approach (Myers et al 2021). The 2020–2030 decade of restoration requires innovative and environment friendly measures for land use change to support lives and livelihood. Innovativeness here implies novel economic approaches for the cost involved for 47% of degraded dry land for land use management (UNCCD 2022). Nature based solutions addressing natural and societal change as conservation measures are non technical solutions for combating climate change or desertification (Lin et al 2021, UNCCD 2022). Land use management and economic approaches are important tools for designing projects for nature based solutions. Inclusive, collaborative, objective oriented practices are encouraged in nature based solutions (Myers et al 2021). Provision for livelihood and nature climate solutions shift in economic approaches, thinking for conservation efforts, deviating from poverty or development based models where necessary as in the case of sustainability (Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981, Daly 1990, Weiskopf 2021). Fashioning an economic instrument for conservation such as use of microfinance, incentives, and subsidies in supply livelihood chains along the conservative source of funds could ensure monetary benefits for the local communities.

2.5 Climate policy implications for grassland, wetland, and grassland-wetland ecotone

The policy implications of climate change are crucial for international relations, diplomatic ties, finance for nature, and in doing so it cuts across the sustainability paradigm (Metz 2000, Hall, 2016, Fawzy et al, 2020, Lin et al 2021). Starting from the establishment of the World climate conference in 1979, IPCC in 1988, Brundtland commission report in 1987, Hague declaration mobilizing 22 heads of state on the issue of climate change, second world climate conference in 1990 bringing the discussion to countries to reduce CO2 emissions by 20% by 2005, Paris agreement with 197 countries seeking to limit the rise in global temperature within 2 degree Celsius and preferably below 1.5 degree Celsius, Kyoto protocol and UNFCCC in 1992 are all a result of multilateral consensus for climate change negotiations (Gupta 2010). The scientific collaboration for climate change is possible through platforms like Inter Academy Panel on International Issues (IAP) with over a hundred national science academies working on ocean acidification and deforestation, influencing climate policy and science diplomacy (Turkeian et al 2015) which is an important global medium of participation towards climate action. These multilateral conversations and agreements have evolved with change in paradigm of climate change from pre 1990’s to the current times, seen as an environmental issue to that of a developmental issue, political issue and also in the context of economic fall back during recession (Gupta 2010). In recent years there has been a change in approach to address climate change from mitigation measures to that of adaptation measures at the global scale (WRI 2020). The evolution in global outlook towards understanding climate sciences, where the issues of climate negotiation fit within the global negotiation for politics, trade, ties but also determine the allocation of finance to just, simple solutions, towards climate action. In doing so, they also provide an umbrella network to issues of livelihood, cultural, and social knowledge and belief systems to sustain biodiversity, promote sustainability, and enhance climate resilience. At present, climate studies require modified laws, institutional arrangements or directives for data management for UN climate change negotiations at national levels such as to support the meteorological data trends collected within the last 50 years with over 500 meteorological weather stations in India itself (Rathore et al 2013, IPCC 2019). As policy concerns related to climate change are increasing, it is imperative to match our conceptual understanding, conservation strategies, the requisite finance and policy tools with that of present and increasing concerns (Cohen 1993). It is recommended to employ a variety of policy tools in addition to spatial studies in order to channelize finance towards nature and nature based solutions for climate change (Wilby 2007, World Bank 2021).

In India, apart from institutional framework and strengthening the state level climate action plan and developing indicator framework for monitoring climate vulnerability in India, trans-disciplinary application could be beneficial for improving the efficacy of climate change in ecological systems (Climate vulnerability report 2019). The process of conducting interdisciplinary research within climate sciences could very well be applied for ecological concerns and direct finances towards solutions which support ecosystem approach. The synergies with ecological economics, socio-ecology, and political ecology under the lens of sustainability add to climate change policy and practice within ecology using the transdisciplinary approach applied for equitable future (Bergmann et al 2005, Krellenberg and Katrin 2014, Gaziulusoy et al 2016, Jayaraman and Kanitakar 2019). This would ensure cognizance of improved measures and recommendations for long term eco-tone management for climate change adaptation at global and local level (Planning commission 2006, Klenk and Meehan 2015, Sivapalan et al 2021). There is continued scope for improved understanding within biota of Antarctic glaciers, to anthropogenic involvement, nature based solutions and mitigation based on the principles of equity (Clarke et al 2007, Jayraman and Kanitkar 2019). The nature based solution for climate adaptation strategies and measures for localized implementation has gaps to be addressed through research, innovative measures, and stakeholder engagement for climate impacts and livelihood integration in case of India and perhaps similar developing countries as shown in Fig. 1.

Climate impact and intersectoral applications for adaptation in grassland-wetland ecosystems to is the primary aim of the current study. The purpose of this paper is to derive a set of ecological, livelihood, and policy linkages for nature based climate solutions for grasslands, wetlands, and grassland-wetland ecotones. In order to highlight the gap and mechanisms existing in climate change impacts for grassland-wetland ecotones, and to derive policy linkages addressing these gaps, we have followed a qualitative research design and analysis using structured thematic literature review represented in the schematic diagram in this section (Fig. 2). In the present research design, we use literature review which is intersectoral, scoping, comprehensive, sector specific, interdisciplinary, and secondary in nature. We have considered the broad themes of current scholarships on ‘climate change’; ‘climate change impact on grassland-wetland ecotones’ and ‘policy measures in the field of ecology and environment’, ‘financial instruments and pricing mechanisms’. The thematic review is further subdivided into themes of, ‘Grasslands ecosystem, agro-ecology and climate change impact’, ‘Wetland ecosystem-ecology impacted by climate change’, ‘Nature based solutions for grassland-wetland ecotone’, ‘Management practices, livelihood-market mechanisms, and finance for nature climate solutions’, ‘Climate policy implications for grassland, wetland, and grassland-wetland ecotone’. We collected literature using the themes mentioned in the using google scholar search engine. A total of two hundred and eighty five research papers and published reports were read and reviewed (see the list in Appendix -I). The collected literature was read thrice for comprehensiveness. Using conceptual, previous field studies on climate adaptation, and qualitative analysis we have derived the intersectoral and policy results highlighted in Table 1 in Finding and discussion section of the paper.

4.1 Climate change adaptation inter-linkages for ecotones

The mode of standard assessment and applications in various fields of research is a massive exercise. The impact of climate change has been assessed on multiple sectors. Environment and ecology is affected by climate change. Climate science adaptation is the answer to climate impacts and climate assessments (Mertz et al., 2010; Mimura et al., 2015). Adaptation and mitigation for nature based solutions for ecosystem and anthropogenic communities because of their overlapping nature, mutual existence, and importance for current climate and sustainability policy is essential for researchers and practitioners alike (Beisbroeck et al., 2010; UNEP, 2020). Recent trend is towards highlighting cost and benefit derived from adaptation strategies (Braunschweiger and Ingold, 2023). Essential climate adaptation measures for natural systems and applicability for a range of environments makes it solution friendly. The measures for adaptation are addressed in documents such as United Nations adaptation report (UNEP 2020). Nature based solutions are the present day clarion call for sustainability initiatives and adapting to climate change. Measures such as adaptive carbon tax investment model for supporting forest growth for ecological system to fight damages due to climate change is one such way of climate adaptation (Miller et al., 2017; Bastien-Olvera, 2020). We are representing the linkages between climate sciences, impact on ecological system, ecotones, nature based solutions with existing livelihood linkages, and market mechanism in Table 1. The linkages identified are as per the critical verticals for climate change ecotones as impact, livelihood, and policy. The linkages are ecosystems services and ecosystem functioning, land resources and rights, conservation awareness and nature education, natural and anthropogenic losses and compensation, nature and nature based solution, socio-cultural exchange and preservation of traditional knowledge, eco-tourism, management strategies for protected and non-protected areas, eco-tourism, Management strategies for protected and non-protected areas, Restoration and regeneration potential, Sustainable agro-forestry integrated livelihood diversification, Micro-finance, lending abilities, and presence of financial instruments such as carbon tax. In order for fulfilling climate change adaptation strategies we require presence of inter-linkages for livelihood as well as policy instruments. Presence of these linkages is essential for climate adaptation strategies for ecologically sensitive areas. The novelty of the work lies in identifying the verticals as well as inter-linkages for policy. For current and future analysis on climate change adaptation strategies, we are representing in a way which to highlight existing gaps in the linkages for livelihood and linkages. The arrows here indicate the link to livelihood and policy.

Table 1

Identification of critical ecological mapping points for grassland-wetland ecotones
Aim	Setting	Result
To classify ecological and market terms or concepts as indicators for grassland-wetland ecotones which get affected by climate change.	The identified indicators should fall within the three verticals identified in this study as impact, livelihood, and policy.	Identification of terms and concepts such as ecosystem services, functioning, land rights, natural and human losses, nature-based solution, ecotourism etc.

Table 2

Climate impacted grasslands, wetlands, and grassland-wetlands ecotones-ecological, livelihood and policy linkages and mapping points with respect to critical verticals.
Impact	Livelihood Linkage (exists/ partially exists/doesn’t exist)	Policy linkages (exists/ partially exists/doesn’t exist)
Ecosystems services and ecosystem functioning	Exists	Exists
Land, and resource rights	Partially exists	Partially/doesn’t exist
Conservation awareness and nature education	Exists	Exists
Natural and Anthropogenic losses and compensation	Partially exists	Partially/doesn’t exists
Nature based solutions/Nature climate solutions	Exists	Exists
Socio-cultural exchange and preservation of traditional knowledge	Exists	Exists
Eco-tourism	Exist	Exist
Management strategies for protected area	Partially/doesn’t exist	Partially/doesn’t exist
Management strategies for non-protected area	Partially/doesn’t exist	Partially/doesn’t exist
Restoration potential	Partially exist	Partially/doesn’t exist
Regeneration potential	Partially/doesn’t exist	Partially/doesn’t exist
Sustainable agro-forestry integrated livelihood diversification	Partially exist	Partially exist
Micro-finacnce, lending abilities, and presence of financial instruments such as carbon tax	Partially exist	Partially exist
*Exists-it basically means the identified ecological, economic, social or market term exists on ground and in publication for grassland-wetland ecotones; partially exists means it exists on paper and not on ground or vice versa, and doesn’t exist means it doesn’t exist for grassland-wetland ecotones

5.1 Climate management and adaptation strategies for grasslands, wetlands and grasslands-wetlands ecosystem

Paradigm of conservation practices and management strategies for grasslands and wetlands is affected by climate change (Mawdsley et al., 2009). Apart from climatic impact of grasses, grasslands, and its management strategies are affected by livestock pressure on regeneration, species shift, and succession changes (Singh et al 1983, Ravindranath and Sukumar 1998, Roy and Singh 2013). A holistic approach to climate adaptation for ecological system integrates management and adaptation strategies corresponding to impacts. Climate impacts and mitigation for grasslands, wetlands and ecotone productivity requires measures for reducing emissions, measuring carbon stock, and adding sources of carbon (Noble 1993, Ravindranath and Sukumar, 1998, Ogle et al 2004; Mertz et al., 2009; Mimura et al., 2015). The depth of impact and assessment methodology varies from forests, to wetlands and grassland ecosystems. Key ecological considerations for ecological systems such as grassland wetland and grassland-wetland ecotones health include study on grasses, species diversity, species distribution, adaptation in metabolic pathways, nutrient availability, and affect on uptake, changes in food chain and web, habitat changes, and spatial distribution. Linking ecological systems with social ones for climate adaptation is more result oriented for local adaptation measures. Management strategies are modified with focus on grazing control, increasing soil organic carbon, soil, village level institutions, and nutrient management for grasslands in India (Ogle et al 2004, Kumar and Chopra 2009, Roy and Singh 2013). Management practices including handling issues such as land rights, ownerships, land disputes, and changes in land use are (Burke et al 1990; WRI 2000; Fawzy et al 2020, Myers et al 2021). Species scope for grassland and wetland management is dependent on financial solutions bolstered through the assessment and ground based analysis (UNEP 2020).

5.2 Cohesion of climate policy and technical know-how for ecological systems as the way forward

In forging a path forward, it is imperative to establish a strong cohesion between climate policy and technical expertise, particularly concerning ecological systems. The adoption of effective climate policies and measures should be driven at the local level by governing agencies, incorporating risk aversion principles akin to the cost-benefit analyses involved in organizational machinery procurement (Braunschweiger and Ingold, 2023). Communication of successful measures and practices through a sustainabale climate policy would be reflective of ecological concerns answered through climate change (Erikson et al., 2011). Climate concerns and adaptive strategies are a result of the policy directions taken up at international level (Biesbroek et al., 2011; Joyce et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2017). Assessment protocol established by technical committees such as IPCC and its breakdown into possible measures for global organizations, countries, national, sub national parties are a result of diplomatic dialogue and policy friendly language. Although IPCC stands as a leading institution for providing justification of climatic changes, Jasonoff (2018) critiques IPCC belief to represent both technical outputs and climate policy. This could be interpreted as inclusion of other agencies for climate policy to match the technical assessment on changing climatic conditions at the ground level. In ecological sciences, knowing integration mechanisms between policy and action for climate science within the domain of ecology and specifically in the case of ecotone studies is evolving. It offers an avenue for integrating inter-sectoral dimensions, such as livelihood considerations and nature-based solutions, into adaptive policy mechanisms. This integration has the potential to replicate efficient adaptation strategies and policy measures, particularly valuable for developing nations like India. Improving our understanding of the implementation of climate adaptation strategies in ecotones is important, and this involves empirical studies that explore linkages across critical verticals.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Funding

There are no funding sources to report for this research work.

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Climate adaption strategies using socio-ecological linkages for grassland wetland ecotones in India

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1. Introduction

1.1 Ecological systems and its interactions with climate change

2. Literature review

2.1 Grasslands ecosystem, climate change impact, and adaptation

2.2 Wetland ecosystem-ecology impacted by climate change

2.3 Nature based solutions for grassland-wetland ecotone

2.4 Management practices, livelihood-market mechanisms, and finance for nature climate solutions

2.5 Climate policy implications for grassland, wetland, and grassland-wetland ecotone

3. Method

4. Result and Discussion

4.1 Climate change adaptation inter-linkages for ecotones

5. Discussion

5.1 Climate management and adaptation strategies for grasslands, wetlands and grasslands-wetlands ecosystem

5.2 Cohesion of climate policy and technical know-how for ecological systems as the way forward

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