Geotechnical, Geochemical and Mineralogical Evaluation of Mine Spoils of the Jos- Bukuru Tin Field, Central Nigeria: Implications for Utilization as Road Construction Material.

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3327940/v1

The use of locally available and accessible soils for the construction of roads, has become necessary due to the high cost associated with the procurement of soils with good engineering features. A geotechnical, geochemical and mineralogical approach has been adopted to evaluate the mine spoils of the Jos – Bukuru tin field for road construction. X–ray diffraction analysis indicates that mineral phases in the soil are quartz (77.38%), kaolinite (18.70%), hematite (1.57%), rutile (0.42%), goethite (1.56%), gibbsite (0.31%), and a negligible amount of montmorillonite (0.06%) which suggests that the undesirable problem of swelling and shrinking of the soil when utilized for road construction will not be expected. The geochemical test result shows that the investigated soils based on the silica–sesquioxide ratio are residual soils that are not ‘’true laterites’’ and have an average composition of 71.81 wt. % of SiO₂, 17.56 wt.% of Al₂O₃, 9.03 wt. % of Fe₂O₃, 0.86 wt. % of TiO₂ 0.07 wt. % of P₂O₅ and less than 0.05% of CaO, MgO, K₂O, MnO and Na₂O. The oxides of silica, iron and aluminum help in cementing or binding the soil particles together. The results of geotechnical investigation show that the soils are poorly graded with an average fine (silt and clay) composition of 56.03%, California bearing ratio (CBR) of 34.64%, maximum dry density (MDD) of 1.65g/cm³, optimum moisture content (OMC) of 18.99%, angle of internal friction (ɸ) of 12.15^O, cohesion of 30.77 KN/M² and coefficient of permeability of 1.24x10^− 3 mm/sec respectively. The Atterberg consistency limit shows that the liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and linear shrinkage values have averages of 38.68%, 23.16%, 15.53% and 10.33% respectively. This investigation revealed that the soils can be utilized as subgrade in road construction and as sub-base only when adequately compacted. This is due to the high percentage of fines and plasticities of the soil.

Mine spoil

Geotechnical

Geochemical

Road

Construction material

Tin mining on the Jos-Plateau has led to the devastation of land as can be seen by the presence of mining ponds and pits, mine derelict and excavated soils, otherwise called mine spoils or mine dumps standing several meters high in most of the locations where mining had previously taken place (Omotehinse and Ako, 2019). These spoils over the years are utilized for the construction of roads, earth dams, making of building bricks as well as filling materials in the construction of houses. Garg (2009) proposed a proper understanding of soils' geotechnical qualities and ascribed the constant occurrence of building collapse and road pavement failure to the soils' weak geotechnical and mechanical properties. The term "lateritic clays," "lateritic gravels," and even "laterites" are still used by engineers to describe any reddish tropical soils (Northmore et al, 1992), despite the extensive work done by past studies to categorize and distinguish tropical soils. This is because there is currently no uniform nomenclature or classification system for these soils. Fortunately, for engineering purposes, it is more important that the geological and engineering properties predicted or inferred from testing are accurate than if the classification is correct (Kamtchueng et al, 2015).

Roads are constructed on or with geological materials (rocks or soils), and the characteristics of these soils affect how well they function as a transportation medium. It is in the realization of the importance of this, that the Federal government of Nigeria stipulated the Nigerian specifications for roads and bridges (1997) for the different engineering properties of soils be use as subgrade, sub-base, and base course materials for road construction. From the bottom to the top of many conventional flexible highway pavements, the main elements are subgrade, sub-base, base course, and riding surfaces (Adeyemi et al, 2014). Adegoke et al (1980); Nwankwoala et al (2014) recognized design and construction flaws, geological, geomorphological, and geotechnical variables, and maintenance as causative factors of road failure in Nigeria. Aghamelu and Okagbare (2011) observed that most road contractors in Abakaliki and environments, because of the high cost of haulage of suitable materials, utilizes the Abakaliki shales for road construction which often fail due to its expansive nature. In investigating the potential reasons of road collapse of the Onitsha– Enugu expressway, Onuoha et al, (2014), collected and analyzed residual soil samples and concluded that the soils do not meet up with stipulated standards set by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing. Tse and Efobo (2016) outlined potential causes for the frequent failure of the Port Harcourt – Enugu expressway to include utilization of substandard soils as the sub-grade, presence of shales of low permeability as well as the presence of significant amount of montmorillonite in the soil. Furthermore, Oyem et al (2020), Daramola et al (2018), identified poor drainage and high percentage fines and utilization of soils of high plasticity as some of the causative factors of road failure along the Sagamu- Papalanto highway in Southwestern Nigeria. Daramola et al (2015) and Momoh et al (2015) identified poor drainage condition of the soil among other factors such as high linear shrinkage, low California bearing ratio (CBR) and compaction values to be accountable for some of the failing roads in southwest Nigeria. Lagos- Ibadan express way is one of the important and busiest roads in southwestern Nigerian that has continually failed. In finding the root cause of the incessant failure, Layade et al (2017) identified fractured bedrock, clay and sandy clay soil with high permeability and porosity as the causes of the incessant failure experienced on the Lagos – Ibadan expressway. However, Simeon et al (2018) ascribed the road's failure on the soil's high natural moisture content along the road's problematic portion, high percentage of fines, and high (> 8%) linear shrinkage values which made the soil susceptible to shrinkage and swelling. Millogo et al. (2008), observed that residual soils for road construction chosen solely based on the findings of geotechnical studies functioned poorly after a short time. The inadequacy of the geotechnical analyses used to support the selection of lateritic soils for use in road construction may be responsible for this behavior. Tockol 1994, Mahalinger-Iyer and Williams 1997, and Millogo et al (2008) offered support for this shortcoming by arguing that lateritic soils require chemical and mineralogical investigation besides the geotechnical tests in order to determine their suitability for use in building roads. Naresh and Nowatzk (2006) emphasized the significance of grain size studies in evaluating the strength of soils and also to estimate the distribution of particle sizes of any soil intended for engineering construction of any kind. The Federal Ministry of Works and Housing advises that subgrade soils should have fewer than 35% of fines. Clayey soils are categorized by Oyem et al. (2020) as moderate to poor road construction materials, whereas granular soils are categorized as excellent to good road materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index also called consistency limits or Atterberg limits is used to evaluate the soil's settling and tensile strength before building roadways (Adeyemi, 1995). Soils with high liquid and plastic limits are not considered as suitable materials for construction purposes because such soils often have limited bearing capacity as posited by Daramola et al (2015). The Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH, 1997) advised a maximum plasticity index of 20% for highway subgrade materials while recommending a liquid limit of 50% for soil if it is to be used as subgrade, sub-base, and base road construction material. According to O'Flaherty (1988), a clay sample's maximum dry density (MDD) might range between 1.40 and 1.70 g/cm3 while its optimum moisture content (OMC) could be between 20 and 30% when employing the modified proctor test procedures. For silty clay, MDD typically ranges from 1.60 to 1.80 g/cm3 and OMC is between 15 and 25% for sandy clay, the typical ranges for MDD and OMC are 1.80 and 2.20 g/cm3 and 8 to 15%, respectively. Oyem (2020), proposed that the suitability of subsoils for building roads is determined by the soil's resistance to stress during the application of pressure as measured by tests for compaction, CBR, cohesion, permeability, and porosity. Igwe et al. (2013), stated that materials that have permeability coefficients (k) between 10^− 7 and 10^− 5 m/s are classed as being moderately to highly permeable. By analyzing the silica-sesquioxide (S-S) (SiO₂ / (Fe₂O₃ + Al₂O₃) ratio, Rossiter (2004) classified soils according to the degree of laterization and concluded that soils with S-S ratios > 2 are considered non-lateritic soils, while those with S-S ratios between 1.33 and 2 are lateritic soils, and those with S-S ratios of < 1.33 are considered as true laterites. Kamtchueng et al (2015) evaluated the geotechnical, chemical and mineralogical characteristics of lateritic soils in Central Cameroun for road construction and argued that the presence of goethite and other iron oxides in residual soils may act as cementing compounds, rendering the compacted structure comparatively brittle in turn contributing to tensile cracking.

With increasing population and urbanization and its attendant pressure on land and construction materials, these mine spoils produced from prior tin mining activities are being utilized for the construction of roads and other engineering construction purposes. This is done without consideration of the geotechnical, geochemical, and mineralogical properties of this leftover soil material. Therefore, this study seeks to evaluate the geotechnical, geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of these mine spoils since it is used for the construction of roads.

Administratively, the study area covers part of Jos South and Barkin Ladi Local Government Areas of Plateau State where mining activities within the Jos area was predominant (Fig. 1). The area is situated between latitude 9^o40^’ 00^’’ – 9^o55^’00^’’N and longitude 8^o50^’00^’’- 9^o00^’00^’’E and covers an area of four hundred and five (405) square kilometers. It is bordered politically to the north by Jos North, to the east by Jos East, to the west by Riyom and the south by Mangu and Bokkos Local Government Areas (LGAs).

The study area lies within the tropical climatic zone, which is characterized by two seasons, namely the dry (April - October) season which is associated with dry- dusty winds and is usually cold and the wet season, which runs from April to October. During the wet season, the average daily temperature ranges between 27⁰C to 35C while during the dry season which is characterized by the Tropical Continental Wind (T.C.W), the temperature can reach 35^OC in the day and as low as 15^OC particularly at night. The rainfall is typical of the tropical Sudan Savanna region with a rainfall of about 198mm with the highest rainfall of 481mm experienced in August and a relative humidity of 89%. However, throughout the dry season, the average temperature is about 21.3^OC with a drop in relative humidity to 17%. The vegetation type is the Guinea Savannah grassland with many shrubs and few trees. Some of the areas are thickly wooden, especially close to streams channels and on some of the hills where physical and chemical weathering has reduced some of the outcrops to boulders with fertile soil for the growth of some of these plants. During the harmattan period, the grasses and shrubs dry out and the trees shade their leaves. They however regain their lush green nature during the rainy season. The area is characterized by two basic relief systems which are the highlands and lowlands with a dendritic drainage pattern. The highlands are characterized preponderantly by granitic hills in the Central and North-Eastern parts of the study area. The highest point in the study area is 1418m located at the Central and southwestern part of the study area while the lowest point is 1131m. The land is mainly used for agricultural activities and artisanal mining of tin.

The study area's geology is part of the Jos-Bukuru Complex, which has been extensively researched by Falconer (1911), Falconer (1921), and MacLeod et al. (1971). This complex is primarily composed of biotite-granite, namely fine-grained biotite granite and porphyritic biotite granite.

3.1 Sampling

The samples were taken from spoils derived from tin and columbite mining within the Jos- Bukuru tin mining fields. These samples were collected using diggers and shovels from the mine spoils. As a result of the mine spoils' diversity, the different components of the soil were sampled from the top, middle and bottom of the mound to get a representative sample of the soil; the lumps were broken and completely blended to create a composite sample (US EPA, 2012)

The soil samples were then collected into air-tight bags (polythene bags) to preserve the natural moisture of the soil. The samples were then transported from the Field to the Geology and Soil laboratory of the Department of civil Engineering, Kaduna Polytechnic for Geotechnical analyses while a fraction was pulverized at the Geochemistry laboratory of the Department of Geology, University of Jos and shipped to Bureau Veritas (ACME) laboratory, Vancouver, Canada for Geochemical analyses while samples for mineralogical analysis using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) were taken to the National Geosciences Research Laboratory (NGRL), Kaduna.

3.2 Geochemical and Mineralogical Analyses

Tin mine spoils are chemically heterogeneous containing major, trace (heavy metals), rare and in some cases radioactive elements. Sample divisions of 0.25g were analyzed using the Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) instrumentation method. The samples were pulverized and split into a representative portion for ultra-trace geochemical multi-acid digestion using HF-HNO₃-HClO₄ and HCl. The prepared samples were digested with a (2:2:1:1) H₂O-HF-HClO₄-HNO₃ acid solution until completely dry. The residue was heated with a mixing hot block and 50% HCl was added. The solutions were cooled before being transferred to test tubes and volume was added using diluted HCl. several Cr and Ba minerals, as well as several oxides of Al, Hf, Mn, Sn, Ta, and Zr, are only partially digested. Fumigation may cause some As, Sb, or Au to be lost due to volatilization. The analysis was carried out following procedures described by Bureau Veritas Laboratory, Canada (ACME).

The soil samples were pulverized to powdered form and 20g of the pulverized soil sample was placed in a beaker and 10 ml of distilled water was added and gently stirred. The Apere instrument pH meter was then inserted into the soil– water mixture and the pH were measured. This was done at the Geochemistry Laboratory of the Department of Geology, University of Jos. The instruments needed for this include; a beaker, stirrer, distilled water, measuring scale, pH meter and measuring cylinder.

In this study, X-ray diffraction was used to identify and quantify fine-grained minerals of clays and other minerals that are challenging to evaluate visually, since this technique is most commonly employed for the identification of unknown crystalline materials (e.g. minerals and inorganic compounds). The procedure is as outlined below:

The soil samples were dried, exposed to air, and then ground to a fineness of 212µm. A Pan analytical (Empyrean model) X-ray diffraction equipment was used to analyze the sample. To create a flat, smooth surface that could later be put on the sample stage in the XRD cabinet, the powdered sample was first prepared using the sample preparation block and compacted in the flat sample holder.
The reflection-transmission spinner stage with theta-theta settings was used to analyze the material. With a two-theta step of 0.026261 at an average speed of 8.67 seconds, the two-theta starting position was 4 degrees and ended at 75 degrees. 40mA of tube current and 45VA of tension were present. The Gonio Scan was employed along with a 5mm Width Mask and a Programmable Divergent Slit.
While rotating through their respective angles, the sample and detector, the intensity of diffracted X-rays was continually measured. When the mineral has lattice planes with d-spacings that are suitable for diffracting X-rays at that value of θ, an intensity peak happens.
The Bragg equation was then solved for the proper value of λ to determine the d-spacing of each peak. Following the determination of all d-spacings, automated search/match processes were performed and the ds of unknown and known materials were compared. Due to the distinctive set of d-spacings that each mineral has, comparing these d-spacings enables the identification of an unidentified sample.

3.3 Engineering Tests

The samples were put through several geotechnical tests, including sieve analysis, the Atterberg consistency limits test, compaction, shear strength, permeability, and California bearing ratio (CBR). These tests were conducted in accordance to the British Standard procedures (BS: 1377, Part 2), 1990 for the Atterberg consistent y limits test, compaction, shear strength, permeability and California bearing ratio (CBR) while the hydrometer test was done using the ASTM (D 6913)- 04, (2009).

Chemical and Mineralogical investigation

The primary determinant of the size, form, physical, and chemical characteristics of soil mechanics is mineral content (Kamtchueng et al. 2015). The X-ray diffraction patterns as can be seen in Fig. 2 shows that the mine spoil is made up of kaolinite, quartz, hematite, goethite and rutile as the dominant minerals. Montmorillonite was found in only three of the forty-five samples analyzed namely; (SSD 9, SSD 13 and SSD 33) while gibbsite was n only one (SSD 33) of the samples. Table 1 and Fig. 3 gives a summary of the mineralogical content of all the samples analyzed which shows that quartz is the dominant mineral in the soil with an average composition of 77.38%. A clay mineral of geotechnical importance found in the spoil is kaolinite with an average composition of 18.70%, this is followed by hematite, rutile, goethite, gibbsite and montmorillonite whose average mineralogical compositions are 1.57%, 0.42%, 1.56%, 0.31% and 0.06% respectively. Quartz is an important silicate mineral found in almost every granitic rock therefore, considering the geology of the Jos - Plateau, the presence of quartz in the soil may have resulted from the weathering of granitic rock bodies. The presence of basic intrusive igneous bodies and its subsequent weathering may have resulted in the formation of hematite and also for reddish-to-brownish coloration of the soil. The mineralogical investigation also shows the presence e of the negligible amount of montmorillonite, which suggests that the undesirable problem of swelling and shrinking of the soil when utilized for road construction will not be expected while goethite and hematite may act as cementing or binding agents in the soil.

Table 1

Mineralogical Composition in (%) of Mine Spoil in the Study Area
SAMPLE ID	Quartz	Kaolinite	Hematite	Rutile	Goetithe	Gibbsite	Montmorillonite
SSD 1	66.00	31.00	3.00
SSD 2	81.00	16.00	3.00
SSD 3	57.60	33.30	5.10	4.00
SSD 4	69.00	24.00	7.00
SSD 5	74.00	22.00	4.00
SSD 6	78.00	19.00	3.00
SSD 7	83.00	12.00		1.00	4.00
SSD 8	61.00	39.00
SSD 9	76.00	18.00			6.00		1.00
SSD 10	76.00	24.00
SSD 11	79.00	18.00			3.00
SSD 12	75.00	18.00		3.00	5.00
SSD 13	65.00	29.00			5.00		1.00
SSD 14	62.00	33.00			5.00
SSD 15	60.00	34.00			6.00
SSD 16	78.00	20.00	2.00
SSD 17	78.00	18.00			4.00
SSD 18	76.00	19.00			6.00
SSD 20	88.00	10.00		2.00
SSD 21	76.00	19.00			6.00
SSD 22	89.00	10.00		1.00
SSD 23	88.10	9.90	2.00
SSD 24	81.00	15.00	4.00
SSD 25	81.00	19.00
SSD 26	81.00	16.00	3.00
SSD 27	88.00	10.00	2.00
SSD 28	82.20	13.90			4.00
SSD 29	85.00	15.00
SSD 30	66.70	27.30	6.10
SSD 31	76.80	16.20		2.00	5.10
SSD 32	83.00	14.00	3.00
SSD 33	46.50	34.70	4.00			13.80	1.00
SSD 34	89.00	11.00
SSD 35	90.00	10.00
SSD 36	79.00	17.00	4.00
SSD 37	82.00	13.00		2.00	3.00
SSD 38	75.00	19.00			6.00
SSD 39	76.80	20.20		3.00
SSD 40	89.00	10.00		1.00
SSD 41	86.10	11.90	2.00
SSD 42	66.30	27.70	6.90
SSD 43	87.00	10.00			3.00
SSD 44	76.00	22.00	3.00
SSD 45	93.00	7.00

The major oxide compositions of mine spoils of the study area as seen in Table 2 indicates that SiO₂, Al₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃ are the dominant oxides in the soil. SiO₂ is most dominant and varies from 58–85wt% with an average of 71.78wt% and this is followed by Al₂O₃ which varies from 10–29 wt. % with an average value of 17.56 wt. %. The Fe₂O₃ concentration varies from 2–19 wt. % with a mean value of 9.02 wt. %. The concentrations of Al₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃ found in the mine spoil are much higher when compared with what is obtainable in the playgrounds, farms, stream sediments and roadsides of Jos and environs as reported by Lar et al (2014). The relatively high concentration of Al₂O₃ can be linked to the weathering of feldspar from the granitic host rocks while Fe₂O₃ may probably be due to the superficial oxidation and percolation of water from Fe-rich capping from some of the surrounding hills. In almost all the mine spoil analyzed, CaO, MgO, and Na₂O contents are < 1%. This according to Lar et al (2014) is expected of soils derived from a mostly granitic parent host rock. K₂O as well as MnO occur fairly low in proportion, and it is a sign of severe weathering in a tropical climate from which clays are formed (Aliu et al 2021). The TiO₂ concentration ranges from 0.039–2 wt. % with an average value of 0.86 wt. %. This relatively high value of TiO₂ may be due to the weathering of rutile and or ilmenite which are common accessory minerals found in altered plutonic igneous rocks. However, the concentrations for P₂O₅ and Cr₂O₃ are very low with average values of 0.07 wt. % and 0.02 wt. % respectively.

Table 2

Major Element concentration in (wt.%) of mine spoil in the Study Area
SAMPLE ID	SiO₂	Fe₂O₃	CaO	MgO	Na₂O	K₂O	MnO	TiO₂	Al₂O₃	P₂O₅	Cr₂O₃
SSD 1	68.23	9.50	0.60	0.10	0.02	0.21	0.0205	0.80	20.60	0.60	0.017
SSD 2	70.13	8.07	0.07	0.16	0.03	0.50	0.032	1.03	19.10	0.04	0.010
SSD 3	58.46	15.06	BDL	0.05	0.01	0.12	0.025	1.88	24.31	0.06	0.059
SSD 4	58.46	18.86	0.06	0.15	0.02	0.29	0.043	1.37	20.60	0.09	0.066
SSD 5	62.97	15.02	0.10	0.15	0.02	0.34	0.026	1.05	20.23	0.07	0.026
SSD 6	68.98	9.70	0.60	0.13	0.02	0.30	0.046	1.21	18.93	0.07	0.013
SSD 7	71.85	12.02	0.04	0.15	0.03	0.67	0.024	0.78	14.34	0.06	0.027
SSD 8	64.2	15.17	0.07	0.20	0.02	0.46	0.509	0.80	18.54	0.05	0.017
SSD 9	68.49	13.50	0.04	0.08	0.02	0.25	0.027	0.70	16.79	0.08	0.022
SSD 10	83.62	5.26	0.04	0.10	0.03	0.51	0.024	0.58	9.80	0.04	0.006
SSD 11	77.32	4.56	0.03	0.07	0.02	0.22	0.009	0.36	17.40	0.02	0.004
SSD 12	75.5	8.15	0.07	0.13	0.04	0.97	0.041	0.73	14.05	0.04	0.084
SSD 13	74.61	5.43	BDL	0.03	0.01	0.06	0.008	0.73	19.07	0.04	0.012
SSD 14	74.07	4.31	BDL	0.03	0.01	0.08	0.007	0.72	20.72	0.04	0.008
SSD 15	67.66	11.31	0.03	0.01	0.10	0.01	0.014	0.84	19.95	0.05	0.034
SSD 16	69.07	9.49	0.01	0.03	0.11	0.07	0.013	0.91	20.21	0.05	0.021
SSD 17	78.67	5.10	0.10	0.13	0.17	0.27	0.016	0.98	14.52	0.05	0.007
SSD 18	68.49	12.88	0.10	0.15	0.02	0.31	0.019	1.01	16.94	0.06	0.026
SSD 19	84.6	2.03	0.01	0.02	0.01	0.06	0.006	0.46	12.78	0.03	0.003
SSD 20	70.04	12.19	0.07	0.18	0.04	0.86	0.022	0.81	15.18	0.60	0.017
SSD 21	75.82	5.25	0.10	0.17	0.02	0.45	0.013	0.04	17.18	0.04	0.010
SSD 22	82.17	3.26	0.08	0.15	0.02	0.43	0.011	0.69	13.14	0.03	0.007
SSD 23	69.43	12.71	0.04	0.01	0.02	0.30	0.016	0.74	16.22	0.06	0.035
SSD 24	63.15	14.74	0.07	0.01	0.02	0.03	0.026	1.05	20.55	0.06	0.031
SSD 25	82.95	3.73	0.08	0.12	0.02	0.42	0.011	0.73	11.91	0.03	0.005
SSD 26	70.14	9.02	0.03	0.08	0.01	0.33	0.014	0.61	19.72	0.04	0.008
SSD 27	75.57	7.99	0.07	0.12	0.01	0.28	0.016	0.77	15.14	0.05	0.010
SSD 28	74.18	7.22	0.10	0.17	0.02	0.42	0.019	0.99	16.83	0.04	0.130
SSD 29	77.64	5.19	0.06	0.13	0.03	0.04	0.016	0.80	15.69	0.04	0.008
SSD 30	71.78	8.58	0.11	0.17	0.02	0.33	0.019	0.93	18.02	0.05	0.014
SSD 31	68.59	9.72	0.10	0.20	0.03	0.66	0.038	0.93	19.66	0.05	0.019
SSD 32	70.71	10.34	0.07	0.12	0.01	0.21	0.019	0.93	17.51	0.06	0.035
SSD 33	63.85	12.67	BDL	0.07	0.01	0.11	0.024	0.66	22.53	0.05	0.027
SSD 34	59.85	8.49	0.03	0.05	0.01	0.10	0.014	1.89	29.49	0.07	0.023
SSD 35	82.04	5.01	0.04	0.10	0.34	0.65	0.024	0.64	11.14	0.02	0.006
SSD 36	66.23	14.87	0.05	0.10	0.02	0.27	0.024	1.02	17.34	0.06	0.026
SSD 37	71.74	10.29	0.03	0.10	0.02	0.35	0.015	0.73	16.13	0.06	0.016
SSD 38	72.78	5.61	0.70	0.15	0.02	0.33	0.015	1.30	19.09	0.03	0.010
SSD 39	68.99	6.06	0.31	0.48	0.14	2.01	0.03	1.19	20.74	0.05	0.010
SSD 40	76.30	5.99	0.12	0.17	0.03	0.72	0.014	0.99	15.86	0.06	0.015
SSD 41	74.55	7.20	0.04	0.10	0.01	0.22	0.022	0.84	16.96	0.05	0.009
SSD 42	62.3	16.80	0.03	0.07	0.01	0.13	0.023	0.74	19.85	0.04	0.027
SSD 43	84.84	2.63	0.01	0.03	0.01	0.10	0.007	0.44	11.90	0.03	0.004
SSD 44	66.00	9.54	0.03	0.05	0.01	0.13	0.024	1.00	22.95	0.07	0.020
SSD 45	83.11	5.24	0.06	0.10	0.02	0.37	0.028	0.42	10.61	0.04	0.007
Note: BDL = Below Detection Limit

Soils have been classified by Rossiter (2004) based on the silica-sesquioxide (S-S) (SiO₂ / (Fe₂O₃ + Al₂O₃) ratio and linked to the degree of lateralization thus; non-lateritic soils are those with S-S ratios > 2, while lateritic soils have S-S ratios between 1.33 and 2, and real laterites have a ratio of < 1.33. The silica-sesquioxide ratio of the mine spoils ranged from 1.48 to 5.48 with an average of 2.99. Thirty-seven (37) of the forty-five (45) samples representing 82.22% of total samples collected have a silica- sesquioxide ratio of > 2 which implies that the majority of the soils are non-laterite while eight (8) samples representing 17.78% of the total samples have silica – sesquioxide ratio of 1.33–2 which means that the soils are lateritic. However, none of the samples have a silica- Sesquioxide ratio of < 1.33 which implies that none of the samples analyzed is a true laterite.

Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratio is a useful provenance indicator for sediments and typical Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios are 3–8, 8–21, and 21–70 for sediments generated from mafic, intermediate, and felsic igneous rocks, respectively (Hayashi et al., 1997). The mine spoils have Al₂O₃/TiO₂ ratios of 12.93–47.93 with an average of 21.82 indicating an intermediate to felsic igneous rock source. Based on this classification, 57.77% representing 26 of the 45 samples shows that the soils were sourced from intermediate parent rocks while 42.23% representing 19 samples shows that the soils were derived from an entirely felsic origin and none from a mafic parent source.

However, the relationship of the Co/Th vs. La/Sc plot as shown in Fig. 4 shows that the soils were derived from felsic igneous and granitic rocks and this is consistent with the research area's geology.

.

The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values for the soil samples as shown in Fig. 5 ranged from 85% − 97.5%, this shows a significant amount of weathering in the sediment source area. In this type of weathering, K₂O and CaO + Na₂O are depleted and the weathering trend moves from the basic, less advanced stage to the most advanced stage where there is a transformation of muscovite - illite - kaolinite. This result is consistent with the XRD analyses carried out which shows that the most prevalent clay mineral in the samples is kaolinite and is also in line with the works of Hassan et al (2015) and Olowolafe (2002) wherein these authors suggested that low pH levels and rainfall-induced leaching of basic cations are responsible for the prevalence of kaolinite in the soils of the Jos - Plateau.

Geotechnical Characteristics of the Mine Spoils

Index properties

Soil index properties reveal how it will behave qualitatively under different kinds of loads. The index properties of the mine spoil are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3

Index Engineering Properties of mine spoils in the study area
Sample ID	LL	PL	PI	LS	Gravel	Sand	Silt	Clay	Fine
Sample ID	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)	(%)
SSD 1	0	18.18	9.82	7.86	10.5	35.48	33.23	20.79	54.02
SSD 2	40	21.58	18.42	10.71	-	19.51	29.16	51.33	80.49
SSD 3	44	28.72	15.28	11.43	22.8	30.1	30.65	16.45	47.1
SSD 4	33	22.88	10.12	10	9.2	27.05	25.91	37.84	63.75
SSD 5	44	20.49	23.51	10.71	-	36.1	21.83	42.07	63.9
SSD 6	45	23.37	21.63	11.43	-	35.34	43.92	20.74	64.66
SSD 7	40	25.66	14.34	11.43	5.6	34.57	30.5	29.33	59.83
SSD 8	44	25.54	18.46	11.43	3.69	44.06	28.75	23.5	52.25
SSD 9	the37	22.47	14.53	7.14	21.89	49.33	20.13	8.65	28.78
SSD 10	30	23.08	6.92	5	20.38	50.82	18.48	10.32	28.8
SSD 11	55	33.33	21.67	11.43	10.23	50.21	24.61	14.95	39.56
SSD 12	30	20.94	9.06	9.29	9.1	47.82	27.35	15.73	43.08
SSD 13	36	21.98	14.02	10	4.89	53.77	26.86	14.37	41.23
SSD 14	42	26.68	15.32	10.71	2.49	49.1	21.86	26.55	48.41
SSD 15	30	23.53	6.47	10	-	49.78	20.47	29.75	50.22
SSD 16	44	30	14	11.43	2.1	53.55	17.47	26.46	43.93
SSD 17	40	21.89	18.11	10.71	-	29.79	44.75	25.46	70.21
SSD 18	39	27.27	11.73	10.71	-	32.08	42.31	25.61	67.92
SSD 19	38	23.02	14.98	10.71	5.3	58.45	25.99	10.26	36.25
SSD 20	42	21.98	20.02	10.71	-	25.19	29.73	45.08	74.81
SSD 21	30	20.34	9.66	9.29	-	26.7	53.07	20.23	73.3
SSD 22	42	20.42	21.58	10.71	-	41.7	47.63	10.67	58.3
SSD 23	41	28.58	12.42	11.43	-	42.27	46.92	10.81	57.73
SSD 24	43	20.87	22.13	11.43	-	43.86	50.11	6.03	56.14
SSD 25	43	23.9	19.1	11.43	-	47.33	47.36	5.31	52.67
SSD 26	41	22.42	18.58	10.71	12.36	56.5	19	12.14	31.14
SSD 27	30	22.47	7.53	9.29	-	38.36	27.71	33.93	61.64
SSD 28	30	19.41	10.59	8.57	-	33.06	31.12	35.82	66.94
SSD 29	40	23.54	16.46	10.71	2.46	50.94	24.93	21.24	46.17
SSD 30	40	24.57	15.43	11.43	-	33.31	21.99	44.7	66.69
SSD 31	43	18.71	24.29	12.14	-	43.62	22.99	33.89	56.88
SSD 32	29	18.75	10.25	6.43	-	46.59	16.9	36.51	53.41
SSD 33	40	20.61	19.39	10.71	-	29.24	19.02	51.74	70.76
SSD 34	48	23.81	24.19	13.57	-	15.22	23.56	61.22	84.78
SSD 35	41	21.05	19.95	10.71	-	49.98	29.28	20.74	50.02
SSD 36	39	21.89	17.11	10	-	33.64	41.43	24.93	66.36
SSD 37	38	20.83	17.17	9.29	-	48.95	24.02	27.03	51.05
SSD 38	41	25	16	11.43	-	49.12	25.2	25.68	50.88
SSD 39	35	21.64	13.36	10	-	0.99	29.35	69.66	99.01
SSD 40	42	27.78	14.22	10.71	-	49.27	28.3	44.58	72.88
SSD 41	31	20.69	10.31	10	-	46.8	34.41	18.79	53.2
SSD 42	40	23.81	16.19	10.71	4.1	51.31	38.32	6.27	44.59
SSD 43	31	21.24	9.76	10	5.26	57.61	31.02	6.11	37.13
SSD 44	47	25.66	21.34	11.43	-	49.87	38.8	11.33	50.13
SSD 45	35	21.89	13.11	10	-	49.57	28.2	22.23	50.43

Atterberg Limits

When assessing the settlement and strength properties of soils used for road construction, the Atterberg or consistency limits are applied (Adeyemi, 1995). The liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and linear shrinkage results from the investigated soils ranged from 0 − 55%, 18.18–33.33%, 6.47–24.29% and 5.00–13.57% while the average values for the liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index and linear shrinkage are 38.06%, 15.52%, 15.52% and 10.33% respectively. Evaluating the soil samples for road construction based on the liquid limit values as prescribed by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH, 1997) shows that 33 samples representing 73.33% of the soils have liquid limit values of ≤ 50% recommended specification for subgrade material for road construction while 12 samples representing 26.66% of the samples have liquid limit values of ≤ 35% recommended specification for sub-base material for road construction. The plasticity index shows that 34 samples representing 75.55% of soils have plasticity index (PI) ≤ 35 making them suitable as subgrade materials for road construction while 11 samples representing 24.44% of the samples have plasticity index (PI) of ≤ 12 thereby meeting the (FMWH, 1997) specification for use as sub–base material for road construction. Based on linear shrinkage, forty- one samples have values > 8 making them unfit for use as subgrade materials in the construction of roads (Jegede, 2004).

Casagrande’s plasticity chart as shown in Fig. 6 shows that all the soils analyzed fall under clays of medium or intermediate plasticity. This result is in agreement with Bell, (2007) classification where he considered liquid limit values of 35–50% as clays with intermediate plasticity. Given the intermediate plasticity of these soils, detrimental settlement of the soil may not be experienced if utilized for road construction.

Grain Size distribution

For engineering reasons, grain size analysis is crucial for assessing the strength of soils (Naresh and Nowatzki, 2006). The grain size distribution results as seen in Table 3 show that the percentage of clays, silts, sand and gravel ranged from 5.31– 69.66%, 16.90–53.07%, 0.99–58.45%, and 2.10–22.80% respectively while the average composition of clay, silt, sand and gravel is 25.70%, 30.32%, 41.06% and 8.96% respectively. For subgrade soils to be used in road construction, the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH, 1997) advises that they should have fewer than 35% fines (clay and silt). However, the percentage fines ranged from 28.78–99.901% with an average of 56.03%. These results when compared with the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH, 1997) specification for the construction of roads show that only three (3) samples meet such specifications.

Engineering Properties

Compaction, California Bearing Ratio (CBR), shear strength, and permeability are some examples of the strength or engineering qualities of soils that can be used to characterize the engineering behavior of soils. Table 4 give a summary of these characteristics.

Table 4

Summary of Engineering Properties of mine Soils in the Study Area
	Shear Strength Test			Compaction Characteristics
Sample ID	C (KN/M²)	ɸ (⁰)	ϒ (KN/M³)	MDD (g/cm³)	OMC (%)	CBR (%)	Permeability (mm/Sec)
SSD 1	31	14	18.42	1.52	20.28	59.82	1.29x10^− 3
SSD 2	31	13	19.55	1.56	21.71	48.94	1.80x10^− 3
SSD 3	28	15	14.99	1.51	21.38	37.33	9.95x10^− 4
SSD 4	11	18	17.86	1.62	21.66	29.46	8.52x10^− 4
SSD 5	30	15	17.76	1.6	21.74	24.17	1.35x10^− 3
SSD 6	30	14	15.92	1.5	24.17	43.23	9.34x10^− 4
SSD 7	30	14	20.01	1.71	15.51	27.72	8.62x10^− 4
SSD 8	14	19	18.38	1.64	19.58	24.05	8.90x10^− 4
SSD 9	47	10	18.54	1.74	17.28	22.85	1.08x10^− 3
SSD 10	29	15	18.11	1.82	14.19	30.66	8.99x10^− 4
SSD 11	29	13	20.6	1.53	24.49	26.45	1.05x10^− 3
SSD 12	18	18	17.27	1.84	16.52	26.81	8.66x10^− 3
SSD 13	31	15	17.75	1.72	14.69	27.05	1.35x10^− 3
SSD 14	43	13	17.94	1.66	17.5	20.2	8.28x10^− 4
SSD 15	40	12	18.76	1.58	19.93	32.59	1.10x10^− 3
SSD 16	11	15	18.64	1.72	19.66	48.13	7.48x10^− 4
SSD 17	30	10	18.76	1.7	16.46	28.86	1.08x10^− 3
SSD 18	20	12	20.43	1.56	19.7	39.14	8.59x10^− 4
SSD 19	32	10	19.93	1.56	16.26	24.65	1.09x10^− 3
SSD 20	27	10	17.51	1.61	17.63	36.07	1.07x10^− 3
SSD 21	30	11	16.92	1.65	15.22	24.89	8.18x10^− 4
SSD 22	23	11	19.36	1.77	21.3	26.33	7.36x10^− 4
SSD 23	34	10	19.02	1.60	17.28	25.73	1.12x10^− 3
SSD 24	38	10	17.6	1.62	18.8	48.82	9.53x10^− 4
SSD 25	28	11	18.35	1.74	17.7	34.75	8.32x10^− 4
SSD 26	40	10	17.78	1.64	21.48	32.59	8.62x10^− 4
SSD 27	40	10	18.47	1.76	18.6	41.3	1.20x10^− 3
SSD 28	14	14	17.86	1.88	20.06	23.45	8.49x10^− 4
SSD 29	25	10	18.1	1.72	17.8	47.13	1.62x10^− 3
SSD 30	33	10	17.68	1.77	22.33	44.67	1.28x10^− 3
SSD 31	33	10	19.3	1.62	21.48	47.86	1.14x10^− 3
SSD 32	30	10	19.53	1.63	19.64	26.69	7.52x10^− 4
SSD 33	30	11	19.12	1.66	19.29	29.28	1.29x10^− 3
SSD 34	43	9	15.68	1.63	18.73	60.72	1.28x10^− 3
SSD 35	40	10	19.69	1.64	18.55	34.87	8.60x10^− 4
SSD 36	20	12	16.87	1.65	20.85	51.46	1.29x10^− 3
SSD 37	12	15	18.67	1.64	17.53	33.07	1.28x10^− 3
SSD 38	42	15	18.26	1.61	20.41	28.98	8.24x10^− 4
SSD 39	44	10	18.31	1.47	16.77	42.75	1.40x10^− 3
SSD 40	41	10	18.62	1.63	19.02	35.83	1.25x10^− 3
SSD 41	32	11	18.02	1.59	18.81	34.27	1.73x10^− 3
SSD 42	44	9	20.19	1.68	20.34	31.56	8.60x10^− 4
SSD 43	30	11	19.8	1.71	15.33	27.72	1.30x10^− 3
SSD 44	49	10	18.21	1.59	20.56	35.29	7.64x10^− 4
SSD 45	28	12	20.15	1.65	16.45	30.72	8.67x10^− 4

Compaction

The accomplishment of a high degree of densification is necessary for the compaction of soils for construction to avoid harmful consolidation under applied load (Olofinyo et al. 2019). The maximum dry density (MDD) of the soils in the study area ranged from 1.47 to 1.88 g/cm3 at the optimum moisture content (OMC) of 10.30 − 24.49%. It can be observed from Fig. 7 below that most of the soil samples have low maximum dry density (MDD) and high optimum water content (OMC), followed by those of both medium MDD and OMC and the least samples have high MDD and low OMC. Thirteen (13) representing 28.88% of the samples have MDD values above the minimum value of 1.70 g/cm3 as specified by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH). This according to Oyem et al. (2020), that the soils have limited bearing capacities and eventually cannot serve appropriately as construction barriers due to the weak MDD and high OMC unless they are adequately compacted and stabilized to reduce voids, boost strength, and decrease its permeability. This indicates that to give the greatest strength, obstruct water infiltration, and distribute wheel loads evenly throughout the pavement structures, the foundation of pavement structures made of these materials must always be compacted above the MDD and OMC values.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

A common engineering laboratory test used to evaluate soil strength for sub-grade, sub-base, and base course materials for road, footpath, and airport pavement design is the California bearing ratio (Olofinyo et al., 2019). The results of the unsoaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) ranged from 20.20–60.72% with an average of 34.64%. All the soil samples analyzed have CBR values greater than the ≥ 15% recommended as subgrade materials or road construction and none meet the ≥ 80% for sub-base material as specified by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (FMWH, 1997). To obtain the necessary strength for road construction materials, the soils must be treated to improvement procedures before being used as a sub-base material for road construction.

Direct Shear Strength

One of the most important engineering characteristics of soil is its shear strength, this is essential each time an engineering structure depends on the soil's shearing resistance (Kamtchueng et al. 2015). The angle of internal friction (ф) ranged from 9–19 ° and the cohesion(C) ranged from 11–49 KN/M². These values are closely related to the properties of some Nigeria's lateritic soils (cohesion range of 65– 75KN/M² and friction angle range between 26–31°) (Oladele et al. 2012; Aloa and Opaleye 2011). Due to their relatively low cohesiveness and angle of internal friction values, these findings demonstrate that the soils in the study area have limited bearing capacity. Consequently, unless the soil is thoroughly compacted, it will be susceptible to erosion and suddenly collapse under applied weight when used for road construction.

Permeability

For the soils, the coefficient of permeability varied from 1.05 x 10^− 3 – 9.95x 10^− 4 mm/sec with a mean value of 1.24x10^− 3 mm/sec. This suggests that the soil is silt to clay and can be classed as medium to low permeable, making the soil suitable as subgrade material for the construction of roads (Igwe et al., 2013). One can then conclude that the soils in the study area are impervious and consists of fine sand, silt and clay and can be utilized as construction material for roads and other earthworks.

The mine spoil of the Jos- Bukuru tin field has been evaluated and the results reveals the following;

The soils (mine spoils) produced from tin mining are derived from a granitic to intermediate source having a yellowish to brownish coloration probably formed in an oxidizing environment.

The mineralogical evaluation using XRD indicate an average composition of; quartz (77.38%), kaolinite (18.70%), hematite (1.57%), rutile (0.42%), goethite (1.56%), gibbsite (0.31%) and montmorillonite (0.06%). The low composition of montmorillonite which is a high-swelling clay, implies that the undesirable problem of swelling and shrinking of the soil when utilized for construction purposes will not be experienced. Chemical test based on the silica-sesquioxide ratio shows that most (82.22%) of the soils are non-lateritic tropically weathered soils and 17.78% of the soils are lateritic soils while none is a true laterite.

The soils' average composition, as determined by the geotechnical tests, is 56.03% of fines, a liquid limit of 38.06%, a plastic limit of 15.52% plasticity index of 15.52% and an average linear shrinkage value of 10%. The average maximum dry density (MDD) and the optimum moisture content (OMC) are 1.65g/cm³ and 19% respectively while the average unsoaked California bearing ratio of the soil samples is 34.64%. This result compared with the specifications by the Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (1997), makes the soil appropriate for use as a subgrade material while only a few satisfy the requirements for use as a sub-base material for constructing roads.

The Atterberg consistency limit tests show that the soil samples are clays of intermediate plasticity with low-medium swelling potential. Consequently, they can be used as subgrade and sub-base building materials for roads with mild traffic.

The soil samples have an average permeability of 1.24x10^-3 mm/sec while the average angle of internal friction (ф) and cohesion (C) are 12.15⁰ and 30.77 KN/M² respectively. In light of these findings, it can be said that the soil has poor to good shear strength capabilities, is impervious, and is composed primarily of fine sand, silt, and clay. It can also be utilized as a material for embankments during the construction of highways and other earthworks.

Conflict of Interests/ Competing Statement

We wish to declare that we (authors) do not have any conflict of interest during and after the preparation of this manuscript.

Authors’ Contributions

This work was conceived by SSD and OI. Field investigations and collection of data were done by SSD under the supervision of OI. Critical and valuable comments to improve the content of the work during the preparation of the manuscript was done by OI.

The manuscript has been read and approved by both authors.

Adegoke–Anthony WC and Agada, O.A. (1980). Technical Lecture. Lagos Nigeria Geotechnical Characteristics of Some Residual Soils and their Implications on Road Design in Nigeria, 1– 16.

Adeyemi, G.O, Oloruntola, M.O, and Adeleye, A.O (2014). Geotechnical Properties of Subgrade Soils along Sections of the Ibadan–Ife Expressway, South-Western Nigeria. Journal of Natural Sciences Research 4 (23), 67 – 7

Aghamelu, O.P, and Okogbare, C.O. (2011). Geotechnical Assessment of Road Failures in the Abakaliki Area, Southeastern Nigeria International Journal of Civil & Environmental Engineering 11,12 –19.

Akintorinwa, O.J., Ojo, J.S., Olorunfemi, M.O. (2011). Appraisal of the causes of pavement failure along Ilesa -Akure highway, southwestern Nigeria using remotely sensed and geotechnical data. Ife Journal of Science. 13(1), 185- 198.

Alao, D. A., and Opaleye, S. T. (2011). Geotechnical analysis of slope failure of a kaolin Quarry at Kura, Jos North-Central. Int J Sci Res, 1(1),87–102.

Aliu, J.O., Itiowe, K., Avwenagha, E.O. (2021). Geochemical Composition, Mineralogy and Geotechnical Characteristics of some Clay deposits in parts of the South Niger Delta, Nigeria. Global Journal of Geological Sciences. 19, 41-51

ASTM D (6913)- 04 (2009). Standard methods for particle size distribution (Gradation). ASTM international, West Conshohocken

British Standard 1377 Part 2 (1990). Standard Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standard Institution, London.

Daramola, S.O., Malomo, S. and Asiwaju-Bello, Y.A. (2015). Engineering Geology of failed sections of Isua – Idoani Road southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Environmental and Earth Science. 5(19), 38 – 45

Daramola, S.O., Malomo, S. and Asiwaju-Bello, Y.A. (2018). Premature failure of a major highway in southwestern Nigeria: the case of Ipele–Isua highway. International Journal of Geo-Engineering. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40703-018-0096-9. 9(28), 1-12.

Falconer, J.D. (1911). The Geology and Geography of Northern Nigeria. Macmillan: London, UK, 147– 154.

Falconer, J.D. (1921). The Geology of the Plateau Tin Fields. Bull. Geol. Surv. Nigeria. No. 1

Garg, S. K. (2009). Soil Mechanics and Foundation. Engineering (7th ed., pp. 673–683). New Delhi: KhanaPublishers.

Gu, X, X., Liu, J.M., Zheng, M.H., Tang, J.X., and Qi, L. (2002). Provenance and tectonic setting of the Proterozoic turbidites in Hunan, South China. Geochemical evidence. Journal of Geochemical Research. 72 (3),393-407.

Hassan, A, M., Raji, B.A., Malgwi, W.B and Agbenin, J.O. (2015). The Basaltic soils of the Plateau State, Nigeria: Properties, Classification and Management Practices. Journal of Soil Science and Environmental Management. 6 (1), 1-8

Hayashi, K.I.; Fujisawa, H.; Holland, H.D.; Ohmoto, H. (1997). Geochemistry of Ga sedimentary rocks from northeastern Labrador, Canada. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 61, 4115–4137.

Heinrich, B., Nicole, Dobrzinski (2011). A review of the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) and its application to the study of Neoproterozoic glacial deposits and climate transitions. Geological Society of London Memoirs. 36, 81 -92

O., Mode, W., Nnebedum, O. Okonkwo, I. Oha, I. (2013). The analysis of rainfall-induced slope failure at the Iva Valley area of Enugu State. Environ Earth Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-013-2647-x

Kamtchueng, B. T., Onana, V.L., Fantong, W.Y., Ueda, A., Ntouala, F.D.R., Wongo, H.D.M., Ndongo, B.G., Ze, N.A., Kamgang, K.B.V and Ondoa, J.M. (2015). Geotechnical, Chemical and Mineralogical evaluation of lateritic soils in the humid tropical area (Mfou, Central Cameroun): Implications for road construction. International Journal of Geo-Engineering. DOI 10. 1186/S 40703 -014-0001. 1-20.

Lar, U., Shettima, E. and Dibal, H. (2014). Heavy metals in the urban soils and vegetables in Jos metropolis, Nigeria: Implication on Children health. American Journal of Environmental Protection. 3 (6-2): 70 – 76.

Layade, G.O, Adegoke, J.A, and Oyewole, I.T (2017). Geophysical investigation of the causes of road pavement failure along Ibadan- Lagos dual carriage, South Western Nigeria. Journal of Applied Science Environment and Management 21(3),547 – 554

Macleod, W, N., Turner, D.C., and Wright, E.P. (1971). The Geology Jos-Plateau, vol.1General Geology. Geol. Surv. Of Nigeria. Bull. No. 32.

Mahalinger-Iyer, U., & Williams, D. J. (1997). Properties and performance of lateritic soil in road pavements. Eng Geol,46, 71–80.

Millogo, Y., Traore, K., Ouedraogo, R., Kabore, K., Blanchart, P., & Thomassin, J. H. (2008). Geotechnical, mechanical, chemical and mineralogical characterization of lateritic gravels of Sapouy (Burkina Faso) used in road construction. Const Build Mat, 22, 70–76.

Momoh, L.O., Akintorinwa, O., Olorunfemi. M.O. (2008). Geophysical investigation of highway failure- A a case study from a basement complex in southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences Research. 4(6),637 – 648.

Naresh, C.S, Nowatzki, P.E. (2006). Soils and foundations. Ref Man Fed Highway Adm 2, 8–75

Nesbitt, H.W. and Young, G.M. (1984). Prediction of some weathering trends of plutonic and volcanic rocks based on thermodynamic and kinetic considerations. Journal of Geology. 48,1523-1534.

Nigerian Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (1997). General specifications for roads and bridges. Federal Government of Nigeria, Lagos.

Northmore, K. J., Culshaw, M. G., Hobbs, P. R., Hallam, J. R., & Entwisle, D. C. (1992). Engineering Geology of Tropical Soils – Summary Finding and their Application for Engineering Purposes. Nottingham: Technical report WN/93/15,Overseas Development Administration (ODA) and British Geological Survey (BGS).

Nwankwoala, H.O, Amadi, A.N, Ushie, F.A, Warmate, T (2014). Determination of subsurface geotechnical properties for foundation design and construction in Akenfa Community, Bayelsa Nigeria. Am J Civ. Eng. Archit 2(4), 130–135

O’Flaherty, C. A. (1988). Highway Engineering (Vol. 2). London, UK: Edward Arnold Publishers.

Onuoha, D.C. and Onwuka, S.U (2014). The Place of Soil Geotechnical Characteristics in Road Failure, a Study of the Onitsha-Enugu Expressway, Southeastern Nigeria. Civil and Environmental Research 6(1), 55 – 67

Oladele, A. O., Olusolo, J. O., & Emmanuel, T. A. (2012). Engineering properties of lateritic soils around Dall Quarry in Sango area, Ilorin, Nigeria. Earth Sci Res, 1, 2. doi: 105539/esr.v1n2p71.

Olofinyo O.O., Olabode, O.F., Fatoyinbo, I.O. (2019). Engineering properties of residual soils in part of Southwestern Nigeria: implication for road foundation. SN Appl. Sci. 1:507. https ://doi.org/10.1007/ s4245 2-019-0515-3

Olowolafe, E.A (2002). Soil Parent material and properties in two separate catchment areas on the Jos
Plateau, Nigeria. Geo. J. 56, 201 – 212.

Omotehinse, A.O., Ako, B.D. (2019). The environmental implications of solid mineral mining in Nigeria with a special focus on tin in Jos and Coal in Enugu. Journal of sustainable mining. 18, 18-24

Oyem, E.I., Igwe,O., Bernadette, U.U. (2020). Evaluation of road failure along erosion-prone highways in Ogun State southwestern Nigeria using integrated methods. SN Applied Sciences (2020) 2:2094 https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-03849-x

Simeon, O.O., Adebayo, O.O., Peter, O.A., Sadiq, M.O. (2018). Geotechnical assessment of pavement failure along the Lagos-Ibadan expressway. FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology. 3(2), 113 – 117.

Tockol, I., Massiéra, M., Chiasson, P. A., & Maiga, M. S. (1994). Les graveleux latéritiques dans les pays du sahel: Cas des routes non revêtues (pp. 3423–3431). Rotterdam, Holland: 7ème Congrès International de l’AIGI.

Tse, A.C. and Efobo, O. (2016). Geotechnical and Mineralogical Evaluation of Soils Underlying a Failed Highway Section in South Eastern Nigeria. Journal of Earth Science and Materials Engineering. 6. 98 – 109

US, EPA (2012). Environmental Response Team. Standard Operating Procedures. Pp. 1-13

Geotechnical, Geochemical and Mineralogical Evaluation of Mine Spoils of the Jos- Bukuru Tin Field, Central Nigeria: Implications for Utilization as Road Construction Material.

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. The study area

3. Materials and Methods

3.1 Sampling

3.2 Geochemical and Mineralogical Analyses

3.3 Engineering Tests

4. Results and Discussions

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1