Study on the microcrystal cellulose and the derived 2D graphene and graphene microcrystal

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3331241/v1

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Study on the microcrystal cellulose and the derived 2D graphene and graphene microcrystal

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3331241/v1

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published 27 Dec, 2023

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Microcrystal cellulose (MCC) is a green and sustainable resource that widely exists in various lignocellulose species in percentage 10–30%. The fine powder of MCC is often discarded in industrial productions that use lignocellulose as feedstock. The crystal structure of two types of MCC (sugarcane pith and bamboo pith) and their derived carbon materials are studied, and the key findings are summarized as follows. (1) In the MCC refined from sugarcane pith, there are large amount of cellulose 2D crystal, which can be converted to valuable 2D graphene crystal. (2) In the MCC refined from bamboo pith there are large amount of amorphous microcrystal cellulose, which can be converted to soft and elastic graphene microcrystal (GMC). (3) The 2D cellulose in MCC of sugarcane pith has large surface area and is easily to be degraded to sugars by acid-base hydrolysis reaction, which can be carbonized to Fullerenes-like carbon spheres. (4) The crystal structures of MCC derived carbon materials are strongly impacted by the crystal structures of MCC, and the carbonization reaction of MCC follows “in situ carbonization” and “nearby recombination” mechanism. In general, the results from this study may open a new way for value-added applications of microcrystal cellulose.

Physical sciences/Chemistry/Chemical engineering

Physical sciences/Chemistry/Environmental chemistry

Physical sciences/Chemistry/Materials chemistry

Physical sciences/Chemistry

Physical sciences/Materials science

Biomass

Bio-refinery

Microcrystal cellulose

2D-cellulose

Carbon materials

Graphene

Carbon is one of the most active and important elements in the natural world, which has maintained a conserved cycle for billions years ^1,2. All living lives, including microorganism, plants, animals and human being, have existed in the carbon cycle for billion years ^3,4. However, the conserved carbon cycle has been badly disrupted by human economic activities during the past hundreds years with burning carbon-rich fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas) in large scale, resulting in environmental pollution, ecology disorder, global warming, and frequently happened disaster climates ^5,6. On the other hand, biomass, including all the natural organic products from plants and microorganism on the earth and in water, is the most abundant and sustainable resource with a worldwide annual production about 8.5×10¹⁰ tons ^7,8, which contain huge amount of carbon, much more than the carbon consumed from fossil fuels each year. Biomass can play the central role in the battle to tackle greenhouse gas emissions and global warming ^1,9–14.

Carbon-based materials are among the most important materials that play many critical roles in current science and technology ⁸. The importance of carbon-based materials has been recognized in recent decades by some of the highest scientific awards, including the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for fullerene ¹⁵, the 2008 Kavli Prize in Nanoscience for carbon nanotubes ^16,17, and the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for graphene ^18,19. In recent decades carbon products has found important roles in anode materials of lithium ion battery and sodium ion battery, in electrode of supercapacitor ^20–22, and in carbon molecular sieves ²³ for gas separations of H₂/CH₄ and N₂/O₂ ^24–26, and in molecular filter membrane for CO₂ capture ^25,27,28, all are urgently needed for energy storage and transformation, and for environment and ecology protection. As a consequence, interest in carbon-based materials and their fabrication techniques is encountering most rapid development, and represents a very important topic in modern materials science.

Biomass has been the traditional resource for carbon materials for hundreds and thousands years in human history. However, the carbon products, directly produced from biomass, are often the low level products, such as wood charcoal and grass charcoal, without fine molecular structures. In order to make value-added carbon materials from biomass, varous new techniques has been developed in the past few decades ^29–31. For examples, after biomass is refined to cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, 3D graphene microcrystal (GMC) ³² and 2D graphene ³³ can be fabricated from lignin and celullose, respectively.

Microcrystal cellulose (MCC) is a part of lignocellulose in percentage around 10–30% ^34–36. The fine powder MCC is very different from the common fibrous lignocelluloses, and is often discarded in the industrial productions that use lignocellulose as raw material. In this article the structure of MCC and the carbon products derived from MCC are systematically studied. The results and conclusions from this study may provide a way for high-value utilization of the sustainable MCC resources.

In this study two types of MCC raw materials are used, one is taken from sugarcane pith ^37,38, and the other is taken from bamboo pith ³⁹. Both sugarcane pith and bamboo pith are wastes in pulp mills that use bagasse and bamboo as feedstock.

Pretreatment of sugarcane pith

The fine powder of sugarcane pith is a part of sugarcane bagasse making up 30% of mass percentage ^37,38 that is very different from the bagasse fiber in appearance and structure. In the pulp mills using bagasse as feedstock, the sugarcane pith is firstly seperated and discarded, because it has no contribution to paper pulp, and consumes chemical reagents fruitlessly. Actually sugarcane pith is a complex collection, including various organs of sugarcane. The majority of sugarcane pith is the powder in form of dried rose petals that is a type of microcrystal cellulose (MCC). In this study the sugarcane pith discarded in pulp mill is further screened by using pneumatic separator, and in this way the impure components are removed and MCC is collected. Figure 1 (a) is a photo of sugarcane pith provided by a bagasse pulp mill in Nanning of Guangxi, and Fig. 1 (b) shows the SEM (scanning electron microscopy) images of MCC of sugarcane pith after wind selection, where the powders of MCC are like dried petals of rose.

In order to remove the lignin and hemicellulose, which chemically combined with MCC, the sugarcane pith is soaked in 10% NaOH solution and heated to 130℃ for 3 hours, then washed by using deionized (DI) water, and dried in air drying oven. As refined sugarcane pith is labled as sMCC (sugarcane microcrystal cellulose), and Fig. 1 (c), (d) and (e) are the HRTEM (high resolusion transmission electron microscopy) images of sMCC, where the 2D crystal structure of sMCC can be seen clearly. Figure 1 (f ) is the molecular model of cellolose 2D crystal. The FTIR spectrum ⁴⁰ and solid state NMR spectra ^35,41 of sMCC are shown in Fig. 2 (a) and (b), respectively. All the spectrums of FTIR and S-NMR and the images of SEM and HRTEM indicate that sMCC is pure cellulose with microcrystal structure in two dimensions. Figure 2 (c) is the AFM (atomic force microscopy) spectrum of sMCC, and the thickness of 2D cellulose is 3 nm.

(Fig. 1: SEM and TEM images of Sugarcane pith)

(Fig. 2: FTIR and NMR spectrums of Sugarcane pith)

Pretreatment of bamboo pith

In the pulp mills using bamboo as feedstock the bamboo is first crushed to pieces. During this process, a large amount of bamboo pith in fine powder form is produced around 20% in mass percentage, which comes from the iner layer of bamboo tube and the cross walls. If the fine powder of bamboo pith is not removed, it would eventually come into waste water, and cause high COD and pollution ⁴². In this study the crushed pieces of bamboo are separated and segmented by using pneumatic separator, in this way the fine powder of bamboo pith is separated and collected. Figure 3 (a) is a photo of bamboo pith, and Fig. 3 (b) shows the SEM images of bamboo pith, where the powders of bamboo pith are like cabbage thick leaves. The lignin and hemiecellulose combined with cellulose microcrystal in bamboo pith is removed by using the same method as the sugarcane pith. As above purified bamboo pith is labled as bMCC (bamboo microcrystal cellulose). Figure 3 (c) is a HRTEM image of bMCC, where a cellulose 2D crystal is spoted and marked in a pink circle, and Fig. 3 (d) is a close view of the cellulose 2D crystal. In bamboo pith there is much less cellulose 2D crystal than that in sugarcane pith, also smaller in size, and most MCC particles in bamboo pith are amorphous microcrystal cellulose.

(Fig. 3: SEM and TEM images of Bamboo pith)

Saccharification of MCC

Cellulose is a polymer of glucose monomers, which can be converted to sugars through acid-base hydrolysis reaction ^37,43,44. However, the hydrolysis reaction of common fibrous cellulose is very difficult because of its tight crystal structure. On the other hand the large and exposed surface area of microcrystal cellulose makes it easily to be saccharized and degraded to sugars with different degrees of polymerization. In this study the sMCC of sugarcane pith is soaked in phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) solution of 5% mass concentration, and hydrolyzed at 90℃ for 3 hours, then is dried in air-drying oven at 120℃ to solid. The sugar hydrolyzed as above is labeled as sMCCs. Figure 4 (a) is a photo of the saccharized sugar sMCCs in solution, and Fig. 4 (b) is a photo of the dried sugar sample (sMCCs). The phosphoric acid used for hydrolysis remains in dried sugar, which will play the role of activation reagent in the following carbonization and activation reaction of sMCCs.

(Fig. 4: The photos of hydrolyzed sugar sMCCs)

Carbonization of MCC precursors

The three MCC precursors (sMCC, bMCC and sMCCs), prepared as above, are carbonized in tube furnace in nitrogen atomosphere at temperature 800℃ to 1400℃. For more exquisite graphene crystal structure higher temperature is needed. For fabrication of porous carbon product activation reagent is used in activation reaction. Then carbon products were measured and characterized using physical and chemical methods, including XPS, BET, SEM, HRTEM, and Raman spectroscopy. For facilitation of industrial production of MCC-derived carbon products, cheap and bulk biomass raw materials, common chemical reagents, and mature operation techniques are used in this study.

In this section the three MCC precursors are first carbonized in tube furnace at temperature 800℃ to 1400℃ in nitrogen atomosphere, respectively, then measured and characterized.

Carbonization of sMCC

The carbon product, carbonized from sMCC at tempereture1400°C for 1 hour, is labeled as sMCC-C. A notable phenomenon is that the sMCC-derived carbon sMCC-C keeps the shape and architecture of its precursor sMCC. The SEM images of sMCC-C in Fig. 5 (a) and (b) are like dried petals of rose, very similar to its precursor sMCC in Fig. 1 (b).

(Fig. 5. SEM and TEM of sMCC-C)

A 10 nm resolution HRTEM image of sMCC-C is shown in Fig. 5 (c), in which a large patch of graphene 2D crystal is marked in a pink circle, and Fig. 5 (d) is a close view of the graphene 2D crystal. In Fig. 5 (e) a larger graphene 2D crystal is shown, where exquisite honeycomb-shaped hexagonal lattice can be seen clearly. Careful calculation reveals that the sides length of the hexagon is 0.142 nm. This is just the crystal structure of 2D graphene. The Raman spectrum of sMCC-C is shown Fig. 8, where the peak-D at 1339 cm^-1, peak-G at 1564 cm^-1, peak-2D at 2677cm^-1, and peak-(D + G) at 2901 cm^-1 indicate that there is a certain amount of graphene in sMCC-C, although not all particles in sMCC-C are 2D graphene.

The 2D graphene crystal converted from 2D cellulose crystal was firstly reported by Du’s research team ³³, where the cellulose 2D crystal was produced through deep hydrolysis of bagasse fibrous cellulose in NaOH solution. In this study the cellulose 2D crystal is found from sugarcane pith, and is converted to graphene 2D crystal. A reasonable inference is that 2D graphene can be fabricated from 2D cellulose precursor, and this may open a new way for production of 2D graphene from sustainable microcrystal cellulose in very low cost.

Carbonization of bMCC The carbon product, carbonized from bMCC at tempereture1400°C for 1 hour, is labeled as bMCC-C that is fluff-like mass of soft and elastic. Figure 6 (a) is a SEM image of bMCC-C powder, and Fig. 6 (b) is a close-view of a bMCC-C particle, where the round shape is like its precursor bMCC in Fig. 3 (b).

(Fig. 6. Photo and SEM of bMCC-C)

Figure 6 (c) is a HRTEM image of bMCC-C, where is filled with multi layers of graphene microcrystals distributing in different directions. In Fig. 6 (c) there is no visible graphene 2D crystal, very different from sMCC-C in Fig. 5. Another HRTEM image of bMCC-C is shown in Fig. 6 (d), where the particles of graphene microcrystal (GMC) are even smaller than that in Fig. 6 (c), only a few nm and a few layers. In a research article of Du’s team ⁴⁵, GMC (graphene microcrystal) fabricated from lignin was reported that is a type of hard carbon like glass and ceramic ^29,46–48, however, the GMC derived from bMCC is soft and elastic. A comparison between bMCC-derived GMC (labeled as b-GMC) and lignin-derived GMC (labeled as l-GMC) is shown in Fig. 10, we will discuss it more detailed in theoretical analysis section.

Carbonization and activation of sMCCs

Spherical carbon or carbon dot ^49,50 is usually fabricated from sugar, starch, and relative feedstocks ^51–53. In this study the sMCCs sugar, hydrolyzed from sugarcane pith, is used to fabricate the sphere carbon. The saccharified sMCCs precursor with residual phosphoric acid is put in graphite crucibles, carbonized in a tube furnace in nitrogen atmosphere at tempereture 800°C for 1 hour, where phosphoric acid plays the role of activation reagent. The produced carbon is washed using DI water to neutral, then dried. As fabricated sphere carbon is labeled as sMCCs-C. Figure 7 (a) and (b) are the SEM images of sMCCs-C, where the sphere carbon particles are in diameter 5 to 20 microns.

(Fig. 7: Sphere carbon sMCCs-C)

The sphere carbon sMCCs-C is porous carbon that was activated by phosphoric acid in the carbonization reaction. The specific surface area (SSA) of sMCCs-C is 1973 m²/g, and the total pore volume is 1.1653 ml/g, measured by using BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) gas adsorption method. The curve of pore-volume vs pore-size is shown in Fig. 7 (c), in which the micro pore volume is 73.5% and the mesoporous pore volume is 24.4%, a good porous carbon for supercapacitor ^20–22.

Characterization and theoretical analysis In this study the 2D graphene is derived from 2D cellulose of sMCC and the graphene microcrystal (GMC) is derived from bMCC. The HRTEM images in Fig. 5 are the direct evidence of sMCC-derived 2D graphene, and the HRTEM images in Fig. 6 are the direct evidence of bMCC-derived GMC. However, not all ingredients in sMCC-C and bMCC-C are graphene. Raman spectroscopy is a powerful tool for characterization of graphene and relative materials. The Raman spectrums of sMCC-C and bMCC-C are shown in Fig. 8 (a) and (b), respectively, where the peak-D at 1339 cm^-1, peak-G at 1564 cm^-1, peak-2D at 2677cm^-1, and peak-(D + G) at 2901 cm^-1 indicate that there is a certain amount of graphene in the MCC-derived carbon products, althou not all carbon particles are graphene.

(Fig. 8: Raman spectrums)

An explanation for the chemical reaction from cellulose 2D crystal to graphene 2D crystal is as follows. The carbonization reaction of cellulose 2D crystals follows the mechanism of "in situ carbonization" and "nearby recombination". According to this mechanism, the 6-carbon glucose monomers of 2D cellulose lost water molecules at high temperature, recombine into benzene rings, and form the 2D crystal structure of graphene on the basis of the precursor’s 2D crystal structure,

(2D cellulose)(C₆H₁₀O₅)_n → (2D graphene) (C₆)_n + 5n(H₂O).

From theoretical viewpoint, cellulose 2D crystal is very unstable, because large amount of unbonded hydrogen bond elements (donors and receptors) are exposed on the surface. Fortunately, in the center of sugarcane tube the highly concentrated sucrose solution saturate the hydrogen bond elements and makes the cellulose 2D crystal stable, consequently large amount of 2D microcrystal cellulose exists in sugarcane pith.

Following the same reaction mechanism the cabbage leaves like cellulose microcrystals of bamboo pith are converted to graphene microcrystal (b-GMC) keeping the shape of its precusor bMCC. The bMCC derived b-GMC is soft and elastic, very different from the lignin-derived l-GMC ⁴⁵, the latter is very hard, like glass and ceramic. The XPS spectrum of carbon atoms in bMCC is shown in Fig. 9 (a), where the sub-peak-1 centered on 285.2 nm is of carbon sp³ atoms, and the sub-peak-2 centered on 286.8 nm is of carbon atoms bonded by oxygen atoms. Figure 9 (b) is the XPS spectrum of carbon atoms of bMCC-C. An interesting phenomenon is that in the sub-peak-1 of Fig. 9 (a) almost all carbon atoms of bMCC are in sp³ electron state (285.2 nm), however, in Fig. 9 (b) most carbon atoms of bMCC-C are in sp² electron state (284.7 nm). It means that during carbonization reaction most carbon atoms of bMCC are converted their electron state from sp³ in cellulose to sp² in graphene, and the other carbon atoms are in an amorphous form, keeping their sp³ electron state.

(Fig. 9: XPS spectrums)

The XPS spectrums of lignin and lignin-derived carbon are shown in Fig. 9 (c) and (d), respectively. Based on the XPS spectrum of lignin in Fig. 9 (c), 72.7% carbon atoms are in sp² state and 27.3% carbon atoms are in sp³ state. And based on the XPS spectrum of lignin-derived carbon (l-GMC) in Fig. 9 (d), the percentages of sp² and sp³ carbon atoms are around 73% and 27%, respectively, almost the same as the bMCC-derived b-GMC. In the lignin-derived l-GMC the sp² graphene microcrystals are chemically bonded by sp³ carbon atoms, forming the sp²-sp³ hybrid hard graphene microcrystal, like glass and ceramic. On the other hand, in bMCC-derived b-GMC the sp³ carbon atoms are in amorphous form, and the sp² graphene microcrystals are piled together without chemical bond conections. Figure 10 is a comparison of bMCC-derived b-GMC and lignin-derived l-GMC, and Fig. 10 (e) is a model structure of l-GMC, where the pink circles are the sp³ carbon atoms that join the graphene microcrystal units by chemical bonds.

In this study the carbon materials, derived from two types of microcrystal cellulose (MCC), sugarcane pith and bamboo pith, are systmetically studied, including pretreatment of MCC, fabrication and characterization techniques of carbon materials, and theoretical analysis of reaction mechanism. Some of the key findings from this study are summarized as follows. Microcrystal cellulose is a green and sustainable resource, makes up 30% and 20% mass percentage in sugarcane bagasse and bamboo, respectively, which can be separated and collected efficiently by using pneumatic separator. After lignin and hemicellulose are removed from sugarcabe pith and bamboo pith by means of biorefinary technique, very pure MCC can be obtained that are good precursors for value-added carbon materials. In the sugarcane pith refined sMCC, there are large amount of cellulose 2D crystal, which can be converted to high-value 2D graphene crystal by carbonization reaction at high temperature. In the bamboo pith refined microcrystal cellulose bMCC there are large amount of amorphous microcrystal cellulose, which can be converted to soft and elastic graphene microcrystal (b-GMC) by carbonization reaction at high temperature, very different from the lignin-derived hard graphene microcrystal (l-GMC). The MCC powder has large surface area and is easily to be degraded to sugars with different degrees of polymerization of glucose monomers by acid-base hydrolysis reaction, which can be carbonized to Fullerenes-like carbon spheres at high temperature. Carbonization reaction of MCC follows “in situ carbonization” and “nearby recombination” mechanism, consequently the crystal structures and architectures of MCC-derived carbon products are strongly impacted by that of their MCC precusors. Overall, the results and conclusions of this study may initiate a new way for value-added applications of microcrystal cellulose, which was once discarded or lost with waste water and caused high COD and pollution in the plants using lignocellulosic feedstock.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the grant from Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (2021GXNSFBA075042), the grants from Scientific Research and Development Foundation of Guangxi Academy of Sciences (2021YFJ1209, 2021YFJ1208 and 2018YJJ908), the Major Science and Technology Projects in Guangxi (AA18118044 and AA22117013), Basic research business foundation of Guangxi institute of botany (Guizhiye 22009), and the Science and Technology Service Network Initiative of Chinese Academy of science (KFJ-STS-QYZD-201).

Author contributions

QSD, SYL and, PDT conceived the theory and method and designed the experiments; SYL, JLL, XQX, LQZ and WDL performed the experiments; SYL, LQZ and WDL analyzed the data of samples; SYL, JLL and PDT prepared the materials and instruments. QSD, SYL and JLL wrote the article.

Data availability statment

All data that support the ﬁndings in this study are in the article, and asking for detailed experimental data is possible depending on further communication.

Additional information

All authors discussed the results and commented on the manuscript, and have no conflict opinion.

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No competing interests reported.

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Study on the microcrystal cellulose and the derived 2D graphene and graphene microcrystal

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Journal Publication

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials and methods

Pretreatment of sugarcane pith

Pretreatment of bamboo pith

Saccharification of MCC

Carbonization of MCC precursors

Results and discussion

Carbonization of sMCC

Carbonization and activation of sMCCs

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 1