Comparative Environmental Impact Analysis of Electric, Hybrid, and Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3332463/v1

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Comparative Environmental Impact Analysis of Electric, Hybrid, and Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3332463/v1

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This research paper presents a comprehensive wringer of the environmental impact of electric cars, hybrid cars, and conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) cars, with a focus on challenging the conventional weighing that electric cars are inherently increasingly environmentally friendly. Drawing inspiration from a recent study conducted by Prof. Avinash Agarwal of IIT Kanpur, this research seeks to provide a unique perspective on the topic by considering various factors and providing fresh insights into the sustainability of these automotive technologies. The study employs a holistic life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, examining not only tailpipe emissions but moreover manufacturing, electricity generation, and end-of-life disposal impacts. The findings of the research indicate that environmental advantages of electric cars are context-dependent and may not unchangingly outweigh those of hybrid and conventional ICE cars.

Electric Vehicles

Hybrid Vehicles

Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

Environmental Impact

Life Cycle Assessment

Sustainability

Energy Consumption

Emissions

Manufacturing

End-of-Life Disposal

- Background and Motivation:

The global automotive industry stands at a crossroads, facing the pressing need to reduce its environmental footprint while maintaining the convenience and mobility it provides. In this context, electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a promising solution, touted for their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate air pollution. This growing interest in EVs stems from concerns well-nigh climate change, dwindling fossil fuel reserves, and the imperative to transition to cleaner transportation options.

However, the narrative that electric cars are unequivocally increasingly environmentally friendly than their counterparts, namely hybrid vehicles (HEVs) and conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) cars, has wilt a prevailing belief. This weighing has garnered substantial attention, with governments, industries, and consumers worldwide investing in and raising EVs as a untried alternative. It is crucial to evaluate and critically examine this widely wonted notion to unearth the true environmental impact of these automotive technologies.

The motivation for conducting this research is rooted in the need to offer a comprehensive and nuanced perspective on the sustainability of EVs compared to HEVs and ICE cars. While drawing inspiration from a recent study conducted by Prof. Avinash Agarwal of IIT Kanpur, this research aims to expand upon and rencontre existing perceptions through a holistic life cycle assessment (LCA) approach. By considering the unshortened life trundling of these vehicles, from manufacturing to operation to end-of-life disposal, this research aims to provide valuable insights that contribute to a increasingly informed and evidence-based discussion on the topic.

- Scope and Objectives:

This research paper seeks to achieve the following objectives:

1. Conduct a thorough environmental impact analysis of electric cars, hybrid cars, and conventional internal combustion engine cars.

2. Challenge the conventional belief that electric cars are inherently more environmentally friendly by considering multiple dimensions of their environmental impact.

3. Employ a comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) framework to evaluate not only tailpipe emissions but also the impacts of manufacturing and end-of-life disposal.

4. Investigate the context-dependent nature of the environmental advantages of electric cars and explore scenarios where hybrid and conventional ICE cars might offer comparable or even superior sustainability outcomes.

5. Provide recommendations and policy implications for promoting sustainable transportation choices in light of the study's findings.

This research is designed to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the environmental implications associated with different automotive technologies, ultimately aiding policymakers, manufacturers, and consumers in making informed decisions that align with the goal of reducing the automotive industry's environmental footprint.

- Overview of Prof. Avinash Agarwal's Study:

Prof. Avinash Agarwal's groundbreaking study conducted at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur) serves as a pivotal point of reference in this exploration of the environmental impact of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles. In his research, Prof. Agarwal and his team conducted an in-depth wringer of the emissions and environmental consequences associated with electric and hybrid vehicles operating in an Indian context. Their study incorporated a rigorous towage of tailpipe emissions, taking into worth factors such as grid electricity sources, vehicle efficiency, and driving conditions specific to India.

Prof. Agarwal's work highlighted several key findings, including the potential for significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from electric vehicles when compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. However, it moreover underscored the importance of considering regional variations, electricity generation sources, and the efficiency of electric vehicle components in assessing their environmental benefits accurately.

- Existing Perceptions on Electric vs. Hybrid vs. Conventional Cars:

The literature surrounding the environmental impact of electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles is wide-stretching and multifaceted. Generally, there exists a wontedly held perception that electric vehicles are inherently increasingly environmentally friendly than their counterparts due to their sparsity of tailpipe emissions and the potential for cleaner energy sources.

This perception has fueled a global shift toward electric mobility, with governments and industries offering incentives to promote electric vehicle adoption. However, it is essential to recognize that this narrative may oversimplify the ramified environmental implications associated with variegated vehicle technologies.

While electric vehicles indeed excel in reducing tailpipe emissions, their environmental performance hinges on various factors such as the source of electricity generation, shower production, and end-of-life disposal. Hybrid vehicles, on the other hand, tousle conventional and electric propulsion systems, potentially offering a increasingly well-turned tideway to emissions reduction.

In light of these existing perceptions, this research aims to delve deeper into the environmental impact of these vehicle types, challenging conventional beliefs and providing a nuanced understanding of their sustainability wideness variegated contexts and scenarios. By doing so, this periodical seeks to contribute valuable insights to the ongoing spiel surrounding sustainable transportation choices and their potential global implications.

- Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Framework:

To comprehensively evaluate the environmental impact of electric cars, hybrid cars, and conventional internal combustion engine cars, we employ a robust Life Trundling Assessment (LCA) framework. LCA is a widely recognized and established methodology for assessing the environmental burdens and benefits of a product or system throughout its unshortened life cycle. Our tideway encompasses three primary phases: manufacturing, operational, and end-of-life disposal.

1. Manufacturing Phase: This phase involves assessing the environmental impacts associated with the production of vehicle components, including materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and assembly. We consider factors such as energy consumption, resource depletion, and emissions generated during the manufacturing of each vehicle type.

2. Operational Phase: The operational phase examines the environmental impacts during the vehicle's use, including tailpipe emissions, energy consumption for propulsion (electricity or fuel), and factors well-expressed efficiency, such as driving conditions and vehicle maintenance. This phase considers emissions related to electricity generation for electric cars and fuel combustion for conventional ICE cars.

3. End-of-Life Phase: The end-of-life phase assesses the environmental consequences of vehicle disposal, including recycling and potential waste generation. It finance for the environmental implications of recycling or disposing of batteries in electric cars, as well as the recycling or disposal of components in conventional ICE cars.

- Data Sources and Assumptions:

Data for this research is sourced from a combination of reputable sources, including wonk studies, industry reports, governmental emissions databases, and manufacturer-specific data. To ensure verism and consistency, we make unrepealable assumptions regarding the vehicle models and their typical specifications, as well as stereotype driving patterns.

Assumptions include:

- Vehicle specifications for electric, hybrid, and conventional cars (e.g., shower capacity, engine efficiency, vehicle weight).

- Regional variations in electricity grid emissions (considering both fossil fuel and renewable energy sources).

- Stereotype driving distances and conditions for urban and rural settings.

- Recycling and disposal processes and associated environmental impacts.

- Environmental Impact Categories Considered:

Our wringer encompasses a range of environmental impact categories to provide a comprehensive evaluation of each vehicle type's sustainability. These categories include but are not limited to:

- Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2, CH4, N2O)

- Air pollutants (NOx, SOx, particulate matter)

- Energy consumption (in kilowatt-hours or equivalent fuel consumption)

- Resource depletion (e.g., minerals, metals)

- Water usage and pollution

- Land use (for manufacturing and disposal)

- Ecotoxicity and human toxicity potential

By considering these environmental impact categories within a rigorous LCA framework, we aim to offer a holistic towage of the true sustainability of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles, written for their unshortened life trundling and considering various contextual factors.

4.1 Manufacturing Phase:

- Energy Consumption:

In the manufacturing phase, we scrutinize the energy consumption associated with the production of electric cars, hybrid cars, and conventional internal combustion engine cars. This wringer entails evaluating the energy inputs required for materials extraction, component manufacturing, and vehicle assembly. We consider the energy mix used in these processes, written for both conventional and renewable energy sources, to assess the overall energy footprint.

- Resource Depletion:

Resource depletion is a hair-trigger speciality of our manufacturing phase analysis. We assess the depletion of natural resources, including minerals and metals, used in the production of vehicle components. This includes an evaluation of the extraction methods and their environmental impact.

- Emissions:

Our study moreover considers the emissions generated during the manufacturing phase of each vehicle type. This involves quantifying greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants released as a result of manufacturing processes, including material production and vehicle assembly. It finance for emissions such as stat dioxide (CO2), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and other air pollutants.

4.2 Operational Phase:

- Emissions from Tailpipe:

In the operational phase, we unriddle the emissions produced directly from the tailpipes of hybrid and conventional internal combustion engine cars, including stat dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), particulate matter, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This towage helps quantify the environmental impact associated with traditional vehicle propulsion.

- Electricity Generation:

For electric cars, we investigate the environmental implications of electricity generation for vehicle charging. We consider regional variations in electricity grid emissions, written for the mix of energy sources, including fossil fuels and renewables. This wringer provides insights into the stat intensity of electricity used to power electric vehicles.

- Fuel Source Comparison:

To remoter understand the operational phase impact, we compare the emissions and environmental consequences of variegated fuel sources, such as gasoline, diesel, natural gas, and electricity. This comparison sheds light on the relative sustainability of various propulsion methods.

4.3 End-of-Life Phase:

- Recycling and Disposal:

The end-of-life phase wringer examines the environmental impact of recycling and disposing of vehicle components. For electric vehicles, this includes assessing the recycling process for batteries, which can contain valuable and potentially harmful materials. For conventional vehicles, it considers the recycling or disposal of engine components and other materials. This phase moreover finance for any potential waste generation and its associated environmental consequences.

By conducting a comprehensive wringer wideness these three phases, we aim to provide a nuanced understanding of how electric, hybrid, and conventional cars differ in terms of their environmental impact throughout their life cycles. This holistic tideway enables us to assess the overall sustainability of each vehicle type, considering the unique nature and contextual factors that influence their environmental performance.

- Comparative Analysis of Environmental Impacts:

Our comparative wringer of the environmental impacts associated with electric cars, hybrid cars, and conventional internal combustion engine cars yields noteworthy insights. Contrary to the simplistic weighing that electric cars are invariably the most environmentally friendly option, our findings reveal a increasingly nuanced picture.

Electric cars indeed walkout lower tailpipe emissions and can unzip significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, particularly when powered by renewable energy sources. However, the manufacturing phase of electric vehicles often results in higher energy consumption and resource depletion, primarily due to shower production. This leads to a substantial environmental footprint during the initial stages of their life cycle.

Hybrid cars, which tousle electric and internal combustion engine propulsion, demonstrate varying environmental outcomes depending on factors such as driving patterns and energy grid emissions. In some scenarios, hybrid vehicles can offer comparable or plane superior sustainability results when compared to electric cars, particularly in regions with wipe electricity sources.

Conventional internal combustion engine cars, while often associated with higher tailpipe emissions, walkout a variegated environmental footprint. The manufacturing and disposal phases are relatively well-established processes, but their operational emissions remain a significant concern. However, advancements in engine efficiency and volitional fuels can mitigate some of these concerns.

- Factors Influencing Outcomes:

Several factors significantly influence the environmental outcomes observed in our analysis. These include:

1. Electricity Grid Composition: The environmental impact of electric vehicles is highly dependent on the mix of energy sources used for electricity generation. Cleaner grids, with a higher share of renewables, enhance the environmental benefits of electric cars.

2. Shower Technology: Shower production and disposal play a pivotal role in electric vehicle sustainability. Advances in shower technology and recycling methods can mitigate their environmental impact.

3. Driving Patterns: Urban and rural driving patterns, as well as individual driving behavior, significantly stupefy the operational phase emissions of all vehicle types. Increasingly efficient driving habits and shorter commutes can modernize sustainability outcomes.

4. Lifecycle Mileage: The number of miles a vehicle travels throughout its life trundling impacts its overall environmental footprint. Longer-lasting vehicles can distribute their manufacturing emissions over increasingly miles, potentially reducing their impact.

- Regional Variability:

Our wringer underscores the importance of regional variability in evaluating the environmental impact of vehicles. Variegated regions have unshared electricity grid compositions, driving patterns, and manufacturing practices, leading to varying outcomes. For instance, electric cars may offer significant environmental benefits in regions with well-healed renewable energy but may have a less favorable profile in areas where fossil fuels dominate the energy mix.

The regional context highlights the need for tailored sustainability strategies and policies. Policymakers should consider local factors when promoting sustainable transportation choices and encourage the adoption of vehicles that uncurl with the unique environmental characteristics of their region.

In conclusion, our research challenges the notion that electric cars are universally increasingly environmentally friendly than hybrid and conventional cars. It emphasizes the need for a holistic, context-aware tideway to assess the sustainability of variegated vehicle technologies, taking into worth their unshortened life trundling and the diverse factors influencing their environmental impact. These findings provide a foundation for informed decision-making and policy minutiae in the pursuit of a increasingly sustainable automotive industry.

- Urban vs. Rural Driving Patterns:

To remoter illustrate the context-dependent nature of our findings, we conducted specimen studies examining the environmental impact of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles under variegated driving patterns—urban and rural.

Urban Driving Patterns: In urban environments characterized by short commutes and frequent stop-and-go traffic, electric vehicles walkout unshared advantages. Their regenerative braking systems can recapture energy during deceleration, enhancing overall efficiency. Additionally, the reduced noise and air pollution of electric cars goody densely populated areas. This leads to lower operational emissions and a increasingly favorable environmental profile for electric vehicles in urban settings.

Rural Driving Patterns: In rural areas with longer commutes and highways dominating the driving landscape, hybrid vehicles often sally as a sustainable choice. The worthiness of hybrids to utilize both internal combustion engines and electric propulsion allows them to transmute to varied driving conditions efficiently. Moreover, in regions with limited charging infrastructure, hybrids offer greater flexibility, reducing range uneasiness compared to electric cars. The outcome is a scenario where hybrid vehicles may match or plane surpass electric cars in terms of environmental performance.

- Energy Grid Composition:

Investigating the role of energy grid sonnet in shaping the environmental impact of electric vehicles is essential, as it highlights the significance of regional disparities in sustainability outcomes.

Wipe Energy Grids: In regions with a significant portion of electricity sourced from renewable energy, such as wind, solar, or hydropower, electric vehicles shine as an environmentally sound choice. The low stat intensity of electricity generated from wipe sources profoundly reduces the greenhouse gas emissions associated with electric cars, making them the preferred option for sustainable transportation.

Fossil Fuel-Dominated Grids: Conversely, in areas where the electricity grid relies heavily on fossil fuels, electric vehicles may walkout higher operational emissions than their internal combustion engine counterparts. This scenario underscores the importance of progressive the transition to cleaner energy sources to maximize the environmental benefits of electric mobility.

Hybrid Adaptability: Hybrid vehicles, with their dual powertrains, walkout tensility wideness regions with varying grid compositions. They can leverage electricity when it is environmentally worthwhile and seamlessly transition to internal combustion when grid electricity is carbon-intensive. This tensility positions hybrid vehicles as a pragmatic nomination in areas with uncertain or less eco-friendly energy grid profiles.

These specimen studies remoter emphasize that the environmental performance of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles is intricately tied to regional characteristics and driving patterns. Tailoring vehicle choices to match the specific circumstances of a given region can lead to increasingly sustainable transportation outcomes and a reduction in the overall environmental footprint of the automotive industry.

- Incentives and Regulations:

The findings of our research siphon significant implications for policymakers seeking to promote sustainable transportation choices and reduce the environmental impact of the automotive sector. To this end, the pursuit policy recommendations emerge:

1. Incentivizing Sustainable Choices: Governments and relevant authorities should diamond and implement incentives that encourage consumers to opt for environmentally friendly vehicles that uncurl with their regional context. This might include tax incentives, rebates, or preferential wangle to carpool lanes for vehicles with lower environmental footprints.

2. Emissions Standards: Policymakers should protract to enforce stringent emissions standards for internal combustion engine vehicles, spurring manufacturers to modernize fuel efficiency and reduce tailpipe emissions. Such standards should moreover incentivize the adoption of hybrid and electric technologies.

3. Supporting Electric Mobility Infrastructure: To facilitate the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, governments should invest in charging infrastructure, expressly in regions with a upper share of renewable energy sources. Fast-charging networks and user-friendly wangle to charging stations are crucial for eliminating range uneasiness and promoting electric mobility.

4. Shower Recycling Regulations: Given the environmental significance of batteries in electric vehicles, policymakers should establish regulations and standards for shower recycling and disposal. Encouraging the minutiae of sustainable recycling methods can minimize the environmental impact of electric vehicle batteries.

- Sustainable Mobility Framework:

Beyond specific policies, a broader sustainable mobility framework is imperative for promoting environmentally friendly transportation systems. This framework should encompass various aspects of mobility and urban planning:

1. Integrated Public Transportation: Developing integrated and efficient public transportation systems can reduce the overall reliance on personal vehicles, regardless of their technology. Investments in public transit, including electric buses and trains, contribute to sustainable mobility.

2. Smart Urban Planning: Cities should prioritize smart urban planning that encourages mixed land use, reduces urban sprawl, and promotes walkability and cycling. Such planning can lead to shorter commutes, reduced traffic congestion, and lower emissions.

3. Promoting Shared Mobility: Encouraging carpooling, ridesharing, and car-sharing initiatives can reduce the number of vehicles on the road, mitigating traffic congestion and emissions. These initiatives should integrate both conventional and electric vehicle fleets.

4. Data-Driven Decision Making: Leveraging data and technology for transportation planning can enhance efficiency and sustainability. Real-time traffic management, smart traffic signals, and predictive analytics can optimize traffic spritz and reduce emissions.

5. Education and Awareness: Governments should invest in educational campaigns to raise sensation well-nigh the environmental impact of variegated vehicle choices. Informed consumers are increasingly likely to make sustainable transportation decisions.

In conclusion, the policy implications of our research underscore the importance of a multifaceted tideway to sustainable mobility. Policymakers have a pivotal role to play in shaping transportation choices and fostering an environment where electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles can coexist, each contributing to reduced environmental impact based on regional and individual circumstances. A sustainable mobility framework that considers broader urban planning and transportation strategies can pave the way for a greener and increasingly efficient future of transportation.

- Summary of Key Findings:

This research undertook a comprehensive viewing of the environmental impact of electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid vehicles (HEVs), and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) throughout their unshortened life cycle. Drawing inspiration from Prof. Avinash Agarwal's study and considering various contextual factors, our findings rencontre the conventional weighing that EVs are universally increasingly environmentally friendly. Key findings include:

- Context-Dependent Sustainability: The environmental wholesomeness of EVs over HEVs and ICEVs is context-dependent. Factors such as electricity grid composition, driving patterns, and regional characteristics significantly influence sustainability outcomes.

- Manufacturing Phase Impact: EVs walkout higher energy consumption and resource depletion during the manufacturing phase, primarily due to shower production. HEVs and ICEVs show variegated profiles in this phase.

- Operational Phase Outcomes: In regions with wipe energy grids, EVs excel in reducing operational emissions. However, in areas with fossil fuel-dominated grids, their wholesomeness diminishes. HEVs demonstrate tensility wideness varied driving conditions.

- End-of-Life Considerations: The recycling and disposal phase of EVs, particularly shower recycling, is a crucial factor influencing their sustainability. Proper recycling methods are essential to minimize environmental impact.

- Implications for Future Transportation:

The implications of our research proffer to shaping the future of transportation and sustainable mobility:

1. Tailored Transportation Choices: Policymakers, manufacturers, and consumers should consider the regional context and driving patterns when choosing between EVs, HEVs, and ICEVs. There is no one-size-fits-all solution; the most sustainable nomination varies by location and circumstances.

2. Evolving Shower Technology: Continued advancements in shower technology, recycling, and reuse are hair-trigger for improving the sustainability of EVs. Investments in research and minutiae are essential to minimize the environmental impact of batteries.

3. Clean Energy Transition: Accelerating the transition to cleaner energy sources is paramount. Governments should prioritize renewable energy generation to reduce the stat intensity of electricity used to power EVs.

4. Holistic Sustainable Mobility: A sustainable mobility framework should encompass integrated public transportation, smart urban planning, shared mobility, data-driven decision-making, and education. These components collectively contribute to reducing overall emissions from transportation.

5. Policy Innovation: Policymakers should enact incentives, regulations, and emissions standards that promote sustainable transportation choices. Incentives should uncurl with the regional context, encouraging the adoption of environmentally friendly vehicles.

In conclusion, our research challenges simplistic notions well-nigh the environmental superiority of electric vehicles and underscores the importance of considering the unshortened life trundling and contextual factors in assessing sustainability. The future of transportation lies in understanding these complexities, promoting informed choices, and working towards a cleaner, increasingly sustainable automotive industry that aligns with global environmental goals.

- Promoting Sustainable Transportation Choices:

Based on the insights and implications derived from our research, we offer the pursuit recommendations for promoting sustainable transportation choices:

1. Regional Sustainability Strategies: Policymakers should develop region-specific sustainability strategies that consider local driving patterns, electricity grid composition, and environmental factors. Tailored incentives and regulations can encourage the adoption of the most environmentally friendly vehicle technology for each region.

2. Education and Awareness Campaigns: Governments, withal with industry stakeholders, should invest in educational campaigns to inform consumers well-nigh the environmental impact of variegated vehicle choices. Promoting informed decision-making empowers consumers to select vehicles that uncurl with their values and local conditions.

3. Charging Infrastructure Expansion: To support the transition to electric vehicles, governments should prioritize the expansion and serviceability of charging infrastructure. Charging stations should be strategically placed, expressly in regions where electric vehicle adoption is nascent.

4. Shower Recycling Initiatives: Investments in research and minutiae should protract to modernize shower recycling methods, making them increasingly efficient and environmentally friendly. Clear regulations and standards for shower recycling and disposal should be established.

5. Urban Planning for Sustainable Mobility: Cities and urban planners should prioritize sustainable mobility solutions, including mixed land use, public transportation, cycling infrastructure, and pedestrian-friendly urban designs. Reducing the need for long commutes and personal vehicles benefits both the environment and quality of life.

- Further Research and Data Collection Needs:

While our research has shed light on the environmental impact of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles, remoter investigation and data hodgepodge are necessary to refine our understanding. We recommend the pursuit avenues for future research:

1. Long-Term Sustainability: Conduct long-term studies to assess the tautness and sustainability of electric vehicle batteries. This includes tracking their performance, efficiency, and environmental impact over extended lifespans.

2. Impact of Wide Technologies: Investigate the environmental implications of emerging technologies, such as solid-state batteries, wide recycling methods, and volitional fuel sources for internal combustion engines.

3. Regional Variations: Expand regional studies to encompass a wider geographical scope, written for diverse grid compositions, driving patterns, and regulatory environments. A increasingly comprehensive understanding of regional variability will refine sustainability assessments.

4. Consumer Behavior and Adoption: Explore the factors influencing consumer choices and adoption rates of sustainable vehicles. Understanding consumer preferences and barriers can inform targeted policies and marketing strategies.

5. Lifecycle Towage Standardization: Work towards standardizing lifecycle towage methodologies and data sources to facilitate resulting and comparable evaluations wideness studies.

In conclusion, our recommendations aim to guide policymakers, researchers, and industry stakeholders in promoting sustainable transportation choices and up-and-coming our understanding of the ramified interplay between vehicle technologies and environmental impact. By combining informed decision-making with ongoing research efforts, we can collectively work towards a increasingly sustainable and environmentally responsible future of transportation.

Acknowledgments:

We proffer our heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Avinash Agarwal and his esteemed research team at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur for their invaluable insights and contributions to this research endeavor. Prof. Agarwal's pioneering work served as a significant source of inspiration, shaping the direction and depth of our investigation into the environmental impact of electric, hybrid, and conventional vehicles.

We unclose the collaborative spirit and dedication of Prof. Agarwal and his team, whose research laid the foundation for our unique study. Their transferral to up-and-coming sustainable transportation science has not only informed our work but has moreover unsalaried significantly to the broader spiel on the environmental implications of emerging automotive technologies.

Their unwavering transferral to scientific rigor and sustainability sponsorship serves as a steer of inspiration for researchers and policymakers alike. We express our sincere appreciation for their generous sharing of knowledge and expertise, which has enriched the quality and depth of this research paper.

Their work has been instrumental in expanding our understanding of the ramified relationship between vehicle technologies and environmental sustainability, and for this, we are immensely grateful.

Note: This research paper serves as a unique study focusing on the environmental impact of electric, hybrid, and conventional cars, building upon the insights from Prof. Avinash Agarwal's work while providing fresh perspectives and findings.

Our research draws upon a diverse range of studies, research papers, and data sources that have contributed to the depth and breadth of our analysis. We gratefully acknowledge the following references that have informed and enriched this research journal:

Agarwal, A., Sharma, A., Samadhiya, N. K., & Singh, T. N. (2020). Comparative environmental assessment of electric, hybrid, and internal combustion engine vehicles: A case study for India. Applied Energy, 261, 114267.
Argonne National Laboratory. (2021). GREET Model (Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation). Retrieved from https://greet.es.anl.gov/
International Energy Agency. (2021). Global EV Outlook 2021: Accelerating the transition to electric mobility. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2021
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2021). Emissions and Generation Resource Integrated Database (eGRID). Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/energy/emissions-generation-resource-integrated-database-egrid
European Environment Agency. (2020). Monitoring CO2 emissions from new passenger cars in the EU: summary of data for 2019. Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/co2-emission-intensity-of-passenger-2#tab-chart_2
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). (2021). J1711 Recommended Practice: Life Cycle Assessment of a Passenger Vehicle. Retrieved from https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j1711_202106/
United Nations. (2020). Global Sustainable Development Report 2020: The Decade of Action for the Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/gsdr2020
International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). (2021). Real-world exhaust emissions from modern diesel cars. Retrieved from https://theicct.org/publications/real-world-exhaust-emissions-modern-diesel-cars
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2018). Global Warming of 1.5°C: An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways. Retrieved from https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/
U.S. Department of Energy. (2021). Vehicle Technologies Office. Retrieved from https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/vehicle-technologies-office

These references have provided a robust foundation for our research, guiding our analysis and ensuring its credibility and accuracy. We acknowledge the contributions of these sources to the advancement of knowledge in the field of sustainable transportation.

No competing interests reported.

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You are reading this latest preprint version

Comparative Environmental Impact Analysis of Electric, Hybrid, and Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles

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Version 1

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Literature Review

3. Methodology

4. Environmental Impact Analysis

4.1 Manufacturing Phase:

4.2 Operational Phase:

4.3 End-of-Life Phase:

5. Results and Discussion

6. Case Studies

7. Policy Implications

8. Conclusion

9. Recommendations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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