Family Socioeconomic Status and Social Withdrawal in Chinese Left-Behind Children: The Moderated Mediating Role of Resilience and Teacher-Child Relationships

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3346917/v1

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Family Socioeconomic Status and Social Withdrawal in Chinese Left-Behind Children: The Moderated Mediating Role of Resilience and Teacher-Child Relationships

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3346917/v1

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BackgroundAs their parents sustained go out for labor service, the left-behind children in Chinese society can not be ignored. The significant effects of family socioeconomic status (SES) may have a direct intergenerational impact on a child’s social adjustment. Although many studies have looked into this topic, few studies have focused on the underlying mechanism and protective factors impacting family SES and offspring social adjustment in the Chinese immigrant context.

Objective This study seeks to examine the mediating effect of resilience on the relationship between family socioeconomic status and social withdrawal behavior and explore whether teacher-child relationships (TCR) can moderate this association.

Participants and setting The sample was 945 left-behind preschoolers (54.8% male) with an average age of 62.35 months (SD = 7.96). These children were from 21 kindergartens in the northern, central, and western regions of China's Guangdong Province, where with average and below-average economic levels.

MethodsData were collected from the teachers about resilience, teacher-child relationships, and social withdrawal. Parents provide information concerning family socioeconomic status. Through SPSS and Mplus, a moderated mediation model was examined.

ResultsFirst, SES is negatively correlated with left-behind preschoolers' social withdrawal. Second, resilience mediated the relationship between SES and social withdrawal.Third, teacher-child relationships moderated the indirect association between SES and social withdrawal behavioral problems via resilience.

ConclusionsOur results support the critical role of resilience and teacher-child relationships in the association between family SES and social withdrawal behavior. Interventions should concentrate on left-behind children's resilience and teacher-child relationships to reduce harmful impacts being passed down through the generations.

family socioeconomic status

resilience

teacher-child relationships

social withdrawal

Chinese left-behind children

intergenerational effects

In the past three decades, China has experienced the greatest rural-to-urban migration in history, for better work possibilities, hundreds of millions of rural folks leave their homes and move to cities, leaving many children left behind at home in the countryside with another parent or other family members [1]. The growing body of evidence from epidemiological surveys, mainly on school-age children, always shows that left-behind children (LBC) have more likely to suffer from social emotional, and developmental problems than non-left-behind children (NLBC) [2–4]. Parents' affection and economic support (ES) are lacking in left-behind children, which affects their social-emotional and behavioral development [5][6]. Shi et al. [1] surveyed 845 LBC children under 3 years of age in five provinces in southwest China and found that more than one-third of rural left-behind children under 3 years of age in the study area had social-emotional problems. Despite a growing body of studies exploring the mental and physical development of LBC to low well-being, those who endure parental migration at ages 3–6 have received less attention. To address this gap, this present study aimed to investigate the relationship between family SES and early social withdrawal behavior of LBC in rural China. Further, it explored the potential mechanisms that explain how SES affects left-behind children’s social withdrawal based on teacher-child relationships(TCR) qualities.

1.1. Family SES and social withdrawal in Chinese left-behind preschoolers

Social withdrawal is the refusal of a person to actively engage in social interactions with others or the choice to live alone to avoid the pressure of starting and maintaining interpersonal relationships [7]. The construct of social withdrawal is multi-dimensional, encompassing not only social avoidance but also shyness and unsociability [7][8]. For example, social avoidance is the urge to spend time alone combined with an active effort to avoid social engagement. Although desiring to engage with others, children undergo shyness in social circumstances causes people to withdraw to lessen their nervousness and trepidation. Others, however, might be labeled as unsociable because they retreat and prefer to be alone rather than due to social anxiety [8]. Previous studies have shown a simultaneous and predictable connection between early childhood social withdrawal and future social adjustment difficulties, including internalizing problems such as anxiety symptoms, negative peer relationships, and academic difficulties [9][10]. The rate of social withdrawal among preschool children in China has been investigated to be between 44.3% and 54.81% according to different assessment methods and research [11][12], and this figure is slightly higher than the Western nations [13]. Additionally, studies also show that LBCs are more likely serious than NLBCs to suffered social withdrawal [11].

Numerous studies have shown that there is a correlation between a children’s family socioeconomic background and their level of social-emotional development in children, such that children with higher family SES have better social-emotional behavior [6][14][15]. The parents of LBC have improved their family's economic income through parental migration. In contrast to those non-migrant families, migrant parents sacrifice their families to stay together for a better material life and a brighter economic future for the next generation [16][17]. However, despite a large number of relevant studies, the research conclusions on the relationship between the socioeconomic status of left-behind families and children's social withdrawal are inconsistent. Some empirical studies have shown that family economic status is an important protective factor for LBC, children's social and emotional development was favorably correlated with the caregiver's education, occupation, and monthly income [15][18]. But, some researchers argue that previous studies may overemphasized the role of migration families' economic resources, which, while providing physical security that relieves the pressure of survival, do not offset the parental care that should be invested in children [19]. Therefore, more attention is necessary to examine the relationship between family socioeconomic status and social withdrawal behavior among LBCs.

1.2. The mediating role of resilience

The internal psychological mechanistic pathways, such as resilience, that related family SES to children’s behavior problems are complex and interconnected [20]. Resilience refers to the process of overcoming the negative effects of risk exposure, successfully coping with traumatic experiences, and avoiding negative trajectories associated with risk, mainly including initiative, self-regulation, and attachment [21][22]. When a person's degree of resilience is low, it indicates that they have less drive and are less able to deal with challenges. Therefore, it is believed that resilience is a crucial psychological resource that helps people deal with stressful conditions [23][24]. Previous studies have shown that children with a high level of resilience are better able to use their psychological resources to quickly adjust their adverse emotions when under pressure [25][26]. Yang et al. [26] examined 380 Chinese left-behind preschool children’s resilience and social withdrawal, and the results showed that resilience had a significant negative predictive effect on social withdrawal. In addition, studies in different countries have revealed that higher family SES is closely associated with children’s resilience. For example, Yates and Mantler [27] reviewed 17 existing studies that investigated the role of SES on caregivers or children during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results showed that due to the pandemic, the financial pressures faced by caregivers, including high unemployment, collapsing economic markets, and inadequate financial relief programs, led to higher levels of distress among caregivers and less resilience among children. However, when families faced few financial hardships, they were better equipped to be resilient. Chen et al. [28] investigated 1245 Chinese junior high school students and found that subjective SES was positively associated with the children’s resilience. From this perspective, resilience may be an essential mediator of the relationship between family SES and social withdrawal. As a result, we investigated this association further in our work.

1.3. The moderating role of TCR

TCR is identified as an important predictor of children’s early school adjustment and behavior problems [29][30]. Children with higher levels of teacher-child interaction and social support tend to have greater courage to deal with future challenges [31]. Previous studies have found that the TCR is closely related to resilience and social-emotional behavior. On the one hand, TCR can affect preschool children's social withdrawal. Research conducting studies involving 702 3rd to 6th-grade students have shown that students in conflict teacher-student relationship are more likely to have externalized and internalized behaviors than others, while close teacher-student relationship shows fewer behavior problems [32]. Evidence from Chinese migrant children shows that teacher-child intimacy buffers the relationship between social withdrawal and peer exclusion, while teacher-child conflict intensifies the relationship [33]. On the other hand, as a protective resource, the TCR is closely related to the development of resilience. Through a three-wave longitudinal design, Zhang et al. [34] found that the teacher-student relationship at T1 was positively correlated with resilience at T2. The study further found that the TCR played a moderating role in the relationship between parent-child relationships and teenagers’ resilience.

Contextual Systems Model (CSM) contextualized the family, the school, and the child as a whole, with the TCR at the core of the whole system, influencing children's social emotional, and behavioral development [35]. Previous studies have indicated that TCR may be especially beneficial for children who have experienced lower- and middle family SES [36]. This is because adverse family situations can create psychological vulnerability and behavioral problems, while children's secure attachment relationships with teachers appear to promote adaptive adjustment as a protective factor [37][38]. Therefore, high levels of TCR may decrease social withdrawal [39]. This study aims to explore the assumption that TCR moderates the connection between family SES and social withdrawal via resilience.

1.4. The current study

Although previous literature has shown that family SES was significantly associated with withdrawal behavior, further exploring the protective variables and potential mechanism is necessary. From Fig. 1 we can preview the current study's aims to underlying the mechanisms by which family SES are associated with withdrawal behaviors in the left-behind Chinese preschool sample through a moderated mediation model. The three hypotheses we developed are as follows: First, family SES is directly related to withdrawal behaviors. Second, resilience is a potential pathway for mediating the association between family SES and left-behind children’s withdrawal behaviors. The increase in family SES level is linked to a decrease in withdrawal behaviors indirectly through the raising in resilience. Third, TCR moderates the connection between family SES and withdrawal behaviors via resilience.

2.1. Participants

The National Education Science Strategic Program in China launched a project on the social-emotional growth of preschoolers who were left behind that included this study. According to the family socioeconomic situation and child population density of the region, data were gathered from 21 kindergartens in the northern, central, and western regions of China's Guangdong Province, where with average and below-average economic levels. 945 left-behind preschoolers aged 3–6 who were 54.8% male and had an average age of 62.35 months (SD = 7.96) made up the participants.

2.2. Procedure

Parents, teachers, and kindergarten leaders were informed of the research purpose before the study, and informed consent was obtained. After agreeing to participate, parents filled out questionnaires about their family's demographic information. Parents also reported whether they were working away from home town. Children raised by their parents were excluded from the study. Teachers completed questionnaires on children's resilience, TCR, and social withdrawal based on their performance in the previous four weeks. The study went through a rigorous ethical review by the first author's institution and was approved by an ethics committee.

2.3. Family socioeconomic status (SES)

Multiple indicators (such as mother's educational level, father's educational level, mother's occupation, father's annual income, and mother's annual income) were gathered to create the composite family SES variable [40] reported by parents. Specifically, the occupation was coded into 5 categories (unemployment, job-waiting, or farmer) to 5 ("senior management personnel and senior professional"); the educational level included 6 categories ranging from 1 ("primary school") to 6 ("doctoral degree"); and the income was divided into 9 levels ranging from 1 (less than RMB 2000) to 9 (RMB 100,000 or more). The family SES index score was developed by summing the standardized scores for these factors [41]. The sample's family demographics are shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Family socioeconomic status and parents' migrant work situation of the sample.
Variables	Category	n (%)
Variables	Category	Father	Mother
Parental annual income	< 10,000 RMB	30.1	38.9
	10,000–30,000 RMB	34.0	32.9
	30,001–50,000 RMB	15.4	11.3
	50,001–80,000 RMB	8.4	3.7
	80,001-100,000 RMB	2.4	0.7
	> 10,0000 RMB	1.3	0.3
	Missing	8.5	12.1
Parental occupation	Unemployed, nontechnical workers, and farmers	32.9	43.3
	Semi-technical and small business owner	32.0	21.4
	Technical worker and semi-professional	17.5	15.5
	Professional, officer, and mid-sized business owners	2.6	3.8
	High-level professional and administrator	1.6	0.4
	Missing	13.3	15.6
Parental education level	Primary school or below	4.8	7.7
	Middle school	53.3	52.5
	High school or vocational secondary school	25.7	26.6
	Vocational college degree	7.0	6.0
	Bachelor's degree	3.5	2.5
	Master's degree or above	0.1	0.0
	Missing	5.6	7.3
Parents' migrant work situation	One of the parents is a migrant worker	23.6	9.5
	Both parents are migrant workers	66.8

2.4. Teacher-child relationships (TCR)

We used the scale of the student-teacher relationship reported by teachers [42] to evaluate TCR as it has been widely used in the Chinese population [26][43]. It consists of 28 items in three components: intimacy (11 items), dependence (5 items), and conflict (12 items). Each item was related on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 “definitely does not apply) to 5 “definitely applies). A higher overall score suggested a stronger teacher-student bond. In Zhang's study [44], which omitted item 12 from the original scale, the Chinese version was further developed and confirmed. The Cronbach’s α in our sample was 0.80.

2.5. Resilience

The Devereux early childhood assessment (second edition) Questionnaire Chinese version was used to measure preschoolers’ resilience [45][46]. Teachers were asked to report on the performance of the children in their classes over the past four weeks. The scale, which consists of 38 items, is divided into four subscales: Behavioural Concern (BC, 11 items), Attachment/Relationship (AR, 9 items), Self-regulation (SR, 9 items), and Initiative (IN, 9 items). The last three subscales evaluate resilience-related protective variables, and the T-scores for IN + SR + AR are added. The first subscale, BC, differs from the previous three subscales since it is used as a preliminary screening tool to find behavioral issues in young children. Each response ranged from "never" to "always" on a five-point scale. A higher protective total score indicated a higher level of resilience. The Cronbach’s α in our sample was 0.91.

2.6. Social withdrawal

The social withdrawal was measured using the questionnaire developed by Ye [47]. Teachers reported using a questionnaire with 12 items over three dimensions: passive withdrawal (3 items), active withdrawal (4 items), and shy silence (5 items). On a 4-point Likert scale, from 0 (never) to 3 (always), the replies are presented. The sum of the dimension scores is the final score. The more withdrawn the youngster is, the higher the overall score. The Cronbach’s α was 0.83 in this study.

2.7. Covariates

The child's age (months), gender (0 = male, 1 = female), and family socioeconomic status (SES) were included as variables based on prior research, which showed the usefulness of covariates when assessing the family socioeconomic status and children's social disengagement.

2.8. Statistical analysis

First, a descriptive analysis and correlation analysis were carried out. Second, the moderated mediation model was examined using Hayes' [48] PROCESS macro. Before analysis, all variables were standardized. The mediation function of resilience between Family socioeconomic status and social withdrawal was investigated using PROCESS macro-Model 4. Third, the moderating impact of the TCR was investigated using the PROCESS macro-Model 8. To calculate the 95% confidence intervals for the importance of effects, a total of 5000 bootstrap samples were employed. In the data analysis, variables for age and sex were taken into account.

3.1. Preliminary statistical analysis

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics as well as the correlation analysis for the demographics of the participants and the study's variables. Results showed that The mean and standard deviations of age among preschoolers were 62.35 ± 7.96 months. Male children comprised 54.8% (n = 518) and 45.2% (n = 427) in our sample were female children. SES was positively correlated with resilience, while significantly negatively correlated with social withdrawal. Resilience had a negative correlation with social withdrawal, but a significant positive correlation with TCR. TCR had a negative correlation with social withdrawal.

Table 2

Bivariate correlations among the main variables.
	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6
1 Age	62.356	7.961	-
2 Gender	0.452	0.498	0.014	-
3 SES	-0.023	0.681	-0.105^**	-0.015	-
4 Resilience	-0.008	0.991	0.226^***	0.078^*	0.125^***	-
5 TCR	0.010	0.986	0.099^**	0.053	0.033	0.390^***	-
6 Social withdrawal	-0.014	0.980	-0.057	-0.041	-0.092^**	-0.318^***	-0.555^***	-
Note: SES = family socioeconomic status. ^p < 0.05,^p < 0.01,^**p < 0.001.

3.2. Mediation analysis

Table 3 shows the mediating effect of resilience on SES and left-behind preschoolers’ social withdrawal. SES was positively associated with resilience (β = 0.22, t = 4.81, p < 0.001), Which in turn was associated with social withdrawal (β = -0.31, t = །9.71, p < 0.001). We discovered that resilience entirely mediated the link between SES and social withdrawal in children (indirect effect = །0.07, Boot SE = 0.02, 95% CI = [།0.10,།0.04]).

Table 3

The mediating effect of resilience on SES and preschoolers’ social withdrawal.
Predictors	Model 1(criterion social withdrawal)		Model 2(criterion resilience)		Model 3(criterion social withdrawal)
	β	t	β	t	β	t
CO: Age	-0.01	-2.07^*	0.03	7.67^***	0.01	0.25
CO: Gender	-0.08	-1.27	0.15	2.46^*	-0.03	-0.56
X: SES	-0.14	-3.07^**	0.22	4.81^***	-0.08	-1.68
ME: Resilience					-0.31	-9.71^***
R²	0.01		0.08		0.10
F	4.69^**		27.08^***		27.44^***
^p < 0.05,^p < 0.01,^**p < 0.001

Table 4

Moderated mediation model.
Predictors	resilience		social withdrawal
	β	t	β	t
CO: Age	0.03	6.99^***	0.01	0.51
CO: Gender	0.12	1.99^*	-0.01	-0.22
X: SES	0.19	4.42^***	-0.09	-2.37^*
ME: resilience			-0.12	-3.95^**
MO: TCR	0.37	12.46^***	-0.50	-17.42^***
XMO1:SES×TCR	0.10	2.19^*
XMO2: SES×TCR			0.09	2.20^*
R²	0.21		0.33
F	50.81^***		76.36^***
^p < 0.05,^p < 0.01,^**p < 0.001

Table 5

Conditional indirect effect analysis at values of the moderator.
TCR	Effect	Boot SE	BootLLCI	BootULCI
M-1SD	-0.010	0.008	-0.028	0.006
M	-0.024	0.008	-0.042	-0.008
M་1SD	-0.034	0.012	-0.059	-0.012
Index of moderated mediation	-0.012	0.007	-0.026	-0.001

3.3. Moderated mediation model

The findings of the moderated mediation (see Table 4) showed that SES was positively associated with resilience (β = 0.19, p < 0.001) and that TCR was positively correlated with resilience (β = 0.37, p < 0.001). The interaction between SES and TCR was positively related to resilience (β = 0.10, p < 0.05)and social withdrawal (β = 0.09, p < 0.05), indicating that TCR moderated the relationship between SES and resilience as well as between SES and social withdrawal. The simple slope of the moderate mediating model (see Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) indicated that under the condition of high TCR, the relationship between SES and resilience was significant (β = 0.28, t = 4.88, p < 0.001), while at the lower TCR, this relationship was much weaker, and eventually becomes nonsignificant (β = 0.09, t = 1.28, p > 0.05). It indicates that higher TCR can stronger resilience. Similarly, the relationship between SES and social withdrawal was significant (β = -0.19, t = །3.10, p < 0.01) under the condition of weaker TCR. This relationship was much weaker but still statistically nonsignificant under the condition of high TCR (β = །0.01, t = །0.09, p > 0.05). Specifically, with the improvement of TCR, the influence of SES on social withdrawal decreases.

The conditional indirect effect analysis (see Table 5) results showed that for teachers with low levels of TCR, the indirect effect between SES and social withdrawal problems via resilience was nonsignificant (β = -0.010, SE = 0.008, 95% CI = [།0.03, 0.006]). However, for teachers with high TCR, the indirect effect between SES and social withdrawal problems via resilience was significant (β = །0.034, SE = 0.012, 95% CI = [།0.059, །0.012]). This finding indicates that children with a high level of TCR, SES can alleviate social withdrawal problems by affecting resilience.

The purpose of this study used a moderated mediation model to investigate how SES affects social withdrawal problems among left-behind children in China. Our study finds that resilience mediates the association between SES and social withdrawal problems, and this indirect relationship is moderated by TCR.

Our results are consistent with previous research and support the concept that SES is negatively related to social withdrawal among disadvantaged children [49]. Family SES played a negative role in predicting children’s social withdrawal. That is to say, the higher family SES was, the lower level of social withdrawal. Our findings confirm the previous studies, which have shown that there is a significant correlation between family socioeconomic status and preschool children's internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, individuals living in low family socioeconomic status are more likely to have anxiety, depression, and other negative emotional problems [50][51]. The human capital theory of Economics can be used to explain this association. Children's human capital accumulation is determined by their qualifications and parental investment. Family income affects children's future behavior and achievement by influencing their cognitive ability [52]. The influence of family economic capital on children's development runs through the whole process of children's development. Migrant parents with higher levels of SES may strengthen communication with their children through video calls, and increase educational resources and toys to make up for the lack of family affection when parents are not at home. Families with poorer SES may not spend more money on electronic devices, toys, books, and other resources [15].

Second, our study found that resilience mediated the relation between SES and social withdrawal behavior, which confirmed our hypothesis. The “context-process-outcomes” theoretical framework suggests that a higher level of family SES as a contextual factor may affect how children learn to adopt a positive attitude to deal with difficulties, which could lead to a decrease in social adjustment as they get older [53]. Studies have shown that children from families with higher economic status are more likely to report higher levels of resilience than those from families with lower economic status. People with resilience show good qualities such as optimism, hope, and strength [54]. In addition, Studies have suggested that resilience helps impoverished children avoid behavioral problems [55][56]. For left-behind preschool children who have been separated from their parents for a long time, the improvement of their family's socioeconomic status is a protective factor. It can enhance their psychological resilience, enhance the ability of left-behind children to resist external risks, and then alleviate the formation of social withdrawal.

Third, we found that the moderating role of resilience on the indirect association between SES and social withdrawal behavior via TCR. TCR is a protective factor for the social withdrawal of LBC. When children's family SES is low, LBCs with higher TCR levels have less social withdrawal behavior and higher resilience. According to the conservation of resources theory, lower family SES may serve as a destructive environment to interferes with mental adjustment (e.g., optimism, toughness) and thus increases behavior problems [26]. TCR as an important substitute resource for parent-child relationships, this protective factor for children who are in adversity, which can enhance children's mental adjustment ability and moderate possible social barriers [57]. Attachment theory shows that teachers are important others for children, and a high level of teacher-child relationship, including warm smiles, timely responses, and high-quality teacher-child interaction, is beneficial to children in disadvantaged situations, enabling children to establish a close attachment relationship with teachers to offset the fear caused by the absence of parents [38]. Due to the huge regional development gap in Chinese society, in order to obtain better material conditions, parents go to the urban cities to find the opportunity to work, and their children are deprived of the chance to get close to their parents [16]. However, Grandparents are old and poorly educated, attach importance to the upbringing of material life and despise the comprehensive care of body and mind [58], which makes the development of LBC in rural China more dependent on the role of teachers [39].

This study had some limitations. First, In this study, children whose parents are migrants or one-parent migrants are classified as left-behind children. Some researchers believe that the careful differentiation of different left-behind types may be more helpful for further research [16]. Future studies can compare the behaviors of children in different left-behind states to expand the depth of the article. Second, the variables of teacher-child relationships are reported by teachers, and the variable reported by children can be increased in the future. This issue can be discussed from the perspective of the teacher-child relationship perceived by children and the teacher-child relationship reported by teachers. Third, the study uses a cross-sectional design rather than a longitudinal design, which provides a snapshot of the participants' lives. However, this design method does not establish causality between variables, and in addition, the study method adopts a single quantitative research method, lacking other qualitative research methods (such as interviews, observations, etc.). Therefore, future studies can increase the use of research methods and adopt longitudinal study design to track behavioral problems in young children.

Family economic adversity may affect the development of left-behind preschool children's social communication ability. Our finding contributes to the knowledge of how family SES affects social withdrawal in a sample drawn from the Guangdong province in China. First, we found that family SES had a significant negative impact on the social withdrawal of Chinese LBC. Second, resilience mediated the relationship between family SES and social withdrawal. Third, teacher-child relationships moderated the indirect association between SES and social withdrawal behavioral problems via resilience. We urge further investigation should be conducted on children with left-behind experiences through interventions to improve teacher-child relationships and resilience.

Acknowledgments

We express our deepest gratitude to all participants. Yingqi Cai: Formal analysis, methodology, funding acquisition. Shuwei Zhan: Data curation, formal analysis, writing–original draft, editing and reviewing. Liying Zhang: Review and editing.

Ethics approval

This study was approved by the ethics committee of Anhui Normal University (AHNU-ET2021031). The children’s parents and teachers were informed about the study’s objectives and processes and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Consent to participate

All participants provided written informed consent before participation.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available for ethical and privacy reasons but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Funding

This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation Pedagogy Key project[AHA200010]; the National Social Science Fund Educational Project [BHA190149].

Code availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available for ethical and privacy reasons but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Family Socioeconomic Status and Social Withdrawal in Chinese Left-Behind Children: The Moderated Mediating Role of Resilience and Teacher-Child Relationships

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

1.1. Family SES and social withdrawal in Chinese left-behind preschoolers

1.2. The mediating role of resilience

1.3. The moderating role of TCR

1.4. The current study

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

2.2. Procedure

2.3. Family socioeconomic status (SES)

2.4. Teacher-child relationships (TCR)

2.5. Resilience

2.6. Social withdrawal

2.7. Covariates

2.8. Statistical analysis

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary statistical analysis

3.2. Mediation analysis

3.3. Moderated mediation model

4. Discussion

5. Limitations and implications

6. Conclusion

Declarations

References

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