Exploring local knowledge on soil quality indicators, climate variability, and farming productivity: a case of farmers in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3395263/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Exploring local knowledge on soil quality indicators, climate variability, and farming productivity: a case of farmers in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3395263/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

You are reading this latest preprint version

Climate variability and soil degradation threaten livestock and crop production globally, and the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa is not exempt. However, little is documented on indigenous perceptions and knowledge held by the farmers concerning the interactive impact of climate variability and soil quality on livestock and crop productivity. The current study used semi-structured questionnaires and interviews to gather local knowledge about the impact of soil quality indicators (SQI) and climate variability on farm productivity among 162 farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality of Eastern Cape Province. The results showed that there was no significant difference in the association between the knowledge of SQI and farming experience or age of the farmer, except for soil organic matter (p = 0.047) and soil biology (p = 0.018). The prolonged drought, low rainfall, and poor soil quality were the major causes of the decline in production. Changes in grazing management and the addition of chemical fertilizers were mentioned to perpetuate soil erosion gullies, increase soil acidity and compaction, and lower soil moisture. According to the participants, adopting crop and livestock practices such as rotation, manure, and compost application improved soil moisture, fertility, and general agricultural productivity amid the observed climate variability. Therefore, the results provide a solid background for various stakeholders (i.e., decision-makers, policymakers, and scientists) to create agricultural practices tailored to farmers’ understanding that will assist them in mitigating the effects of climate variability and land degradation.

climate change

crop production

livestock production

rural farmers

soil quality indicators

Globally, climate variability, together with the rapid increase in world population and degrading soils, threatens agricultural production, which is central to the global food supply (Maja et al., 2021; Ortiz et al., 2021; FAO, 2022). In mid-November 2022, the world's human population reached approximately 8.0 billion and is expected to rise to 9.8 and 10.4 billion by 2050 and 2100, respectively (United Nations, 2022). In the Southern African region, the population is anticipated to increase from 224 million in 2021 to 241 million by 2050, which will exert more pressure on agricultural land (FAO, 2018; Weldearegay and Tedla, 2018; SADC, 2020). However, the effects of climate variability and degraded soils in many developing countries hinder agricultural food production. In South Africa, Huntley et al. (1989) estimated that 300–400 million tons of soil are lost annually. According to du Preez et al. (2011), land degradation poses a serious threat to the sustainability of agricultural production.

The accelerated climate variability, such as temperature and precipitation variability, flooding, and drought frequency, are climatic conditions detrimental to agricultural production (Jordaan et al., 2019; Ngarava et al., 2021; Nciizah et al., 2021; FAO, 2022). The projections by the Jia et al. (2019) show an increased likelihood that the impacts of climate variability on agriculture may become severe. Climate change perpetuates climate variability, and as such, in South Africa, temperatures are expected to rise from 5°C to 8°C by 2050 (Popoola et al., 2020). The country has been experiencing severe flooding events, for example, the 2015, 2019, and 2021 floods that resulted in the loss of land for agricultural production (Archer et al., 2022; Ngarava et al., 2021; FAO, 2022). Subsequently, the negative impacts of climate variability will primarily affect smallholder farmers in marginal communities. Because smallholder farmers are at the center of agricultural mismanagement in many marginal communities (Mekonnen et al., 2021; Chari et al., 2022).

In the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, the mixed farming system of crop and livestock production is the oldest and most dominant farming system among smallholder farmers (Aliber, 2009). The region has a semi-arid climate with low and variable rainfall; the soils are predominantly duplex and occur on a marginal A horizon, which is unfavourable for agricultural production (Parwada & Van Tol, 2019). Due to prolonged drought periods, the Amathole District municipality within the Eastern Cape Province was declared a disaster area in the years 2008, 2014, and 2017 (Mahlalela et al., 2020; Poopola et al., 2020). According to Ropo and Ibraheem (2017), drought lowers rainfall and soil moisture and consequently limits crop growth, yield, and quality. Consequently, this hinders the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 13 of Climate Action, which calls for urgent action to mitigate climate change and its negative effects, and SDG 15 of Life on Land, which seek to save soils and preserve the environment (United Nations, 2020). Therefore, there is an urgent need to understand the impacts of climate variability and the resultant soil quality changes on farming productivity and opportunities for future sustainable soil utilization, particularly in marginal communities. Despite several reports on the degradation of rangelands in rural communities of the Eastern Cape Province, cropland, and crop adaptation strategies to ensure sustainable production have been given more research attention compared to rangelands (Manjoro et al., 2012; Mhangara & Kakembo, 2012; Masiza et al., 2021). Moreover, understanding of the interactive impact of climate variability and soil quality changes on agricultural productivity among smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province are relatively unknown. Indigenous knowledge is critical in generating and managing local issues involving ecosystem services, management actions, and local communities (Peter, 2008). It is also an important fact in increasing the probability of management adoption. Research that focuses on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS), community development, and involvement is encouraged and supported by funding from the Department of Higher Education, Science, and Innovation (DHESI) and the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (NRF, 2018). This is because local people and rural communities are closely associated with the day-to-day necessities of utilizing and managing local ecosystems.

Such information is required for introducing strategies on sustainable land use management needed to enhance the quality of soils and agricultural produce in rangelands (Muzangwa et al., 2022; Oduniyi et al., 2022). Therefore, it is critical to study farmer insights into the interactions between soil quality, climate change, and agricultural changes in cropland and rangeland. As such, the current study assessed local knowledge about the impact of climate variability on soil quality as well as crop and livestock production. Furthermore, the land use strategies perceived to mitigate climate variability were also investigated.

Description of the study site

The study was conducted in 27 rural villages found in Raymond Mhlaba municipality of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (32° 42’ 0’’ S and 26° 18’ 0’’ E) between October 2021 and March 2022. The population of the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality is about 151 379 and covers a total area of 6 474.45 km² (Stats SA, 2011; IDP, 2017).

The Raymond Mhlaba municipality is dominated by six vegetation types including Amathole montana grassland, Bedford dryland grassland, Eastern Cape escarpment thicket, Eastern Cape thornveld, and great fish thicket (Mucina & Rutherford, 2006; IDP, 2017). The geology of the area is of the Beaufort Group, with Karoo dolirite intrusions penetrating through sills and dykes. Therefore, shale, mudstone, and sandstone form the main parent material of the soils (IDP, 2017). The area is characterized by a semi-arid climate, with average temperatures ranging from 6.2°C to 20.8°C in July and 17.2°C to 36°C in February. Themean annual rainfall of less than 600 mm in the area and most of the rain falls during the summer season (i.e., November - January) (Mhangara et al., 2012; Chari et al., 2017).

Participants and data collection

A mixed-methods approach was used in this study, with primary quantitative data collected using semi-structured questions in a questionnaire, supported by a qualitative strand of open-ended questions (Flick, 2008; Creswell, 2014). Through the assistance of the Department of Agriculture in Raymond Mhlaba municipality, the authors retrieved a 2016 database of smallholder farmers (total = 600). The selection of sample was based on convenience sampling, which contained the most relevant characteristics for the current study. The sample number was reached when all the farmers who were still active on the database were contacted. The inclusion criteria for participation in the present research study were that the selection of farmers was limited to those who were actively involved in livestock and crop production.

Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to 162 farmers who were above 18 years old; each questionnaire was followed up by an interview question. The questionnaire was followed by an interview conducted with all participants for them to elaborate on the types of land use changes that have occurred on their farms since 1991. The questionnaire consisted of three main sections: (1) the socio-demographics of the farmers; (2) questions on the agricultural land use changes that have taken place since 1991; and (3) questions on the indicators used by the farmers to identify soil quality. This was used to investigate the farmers’ understanding of the impact of land use on soil quality, land use changes due to soil degradation, and climate-related reasons. Soil quality indicators, and perceptions of good and poor soil quality were used as measures to assess the parameters used in identifying the land use changes. The questionnaires were translated from English to isiXhosa when required because the study area is dominated by isiXhosa-speaking people.

Ethical considerations

The study conformed with the University of Fort Hare’s policy on research ethics, and approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee (REC-270710-028-RA Level 01) before collecting the data. Before administering the surveys, farmers filled out consent forms to permit the researcher to use the information provided. Since the study was conducted during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, the authors ensured that all safety regulations recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) were adhered to in all meetings. This included wearing face masks, maintaining proper cleanliness, and social distancing. The study assured that each participant was aware of the voluntary nature of the survey. Participants were informed that they were free to withdraw at any time during the survey and were ensured of their anonymity and confidentiality. After obtaining informed consent from individuals to participate in the study, the questionnaires were then administered. The interviews were transcribed and stored safely in a digital and password-coded drive. They were treated with strict discretion and were only accessible to the authors.

Data analysis

The quantitative data were analyzed using STATA (v. 15) and Statistical Package for Social Science (IBM SPSS v. 29) analytical software. Descriptive statistics were used to produce frequencies and percentages of the participants’ responses. Pearson’s Chi-square test of association (χ²) was conducted to predict the knowledge of the likelihood of land use change in the municipality due to SQI or climate variability by giving a proportion at a probability of 5%. In analyzing the qualitative data, a general inductive approach was used, which entailed a comprehensive reading of the raw data to extract specific themes (Thomas, 2006), to facilitate Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic analysis. The transcribed data was read multiple times before being transferred into ATLAS.ti software for thematic coding, the identified themes and subthemes were coded on ATLAS.ti. Data saturation was reached when similar responses emerged from the statements and no new information arose. A critical advantage with the ATLAS.ti software was the ability to link the statements from the participants and indicate them as quotations, codes, and sub-codes analyzed by the researcher (McKether & Friese, 2015). As such, ATLAS.ti was used to link a group of codes and establish the relationship between issues using the network diagram and selected quotations from the original responses found in the figures in the results section. The themes and sub-themes were supported by figures which consist of the verbatim examples taken from the transcribed text and presented in those figures using ATLAS.ti. The supervisors of the primary researcher were involved in the thematic analysis, therefore ensuring inter-reliability of the analysis. Independent coding was compared to assess whether the resulting themes corresponded with those found by the primary researcher as a quality check.

Demographic profile of farmers

The socio-demographic information of the sample population under study is presented in Table 1. The participants’ ages were ranged into five categories (18 ̶ 30; 31 ̶ 40; 41 ̶ 50; 51 ̶ 60; and above 60 years). Most participants (46%) were older than 60 years, while 2% were aged between 18 and 30 years. In terms of education level, most of the participants had secondary eduction. The results further showed that most of the participants had more than 20 years of farming experience.

Table 1

Demographic profiles of participants in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality of the Eastern Cape Province (Total Sample N = 162, and N = 162 presented by category).
Profile	Category	Frequency	Percentage %
Age	18 ̶ 30 years	4	2
	31 ̶ 40 years	16	10
	41 ̶ 50 years	26	16
	51 ̶ 60 years	41	25
	> 60 years	75	46
Education	None	12	7
	1 ̶ 6 years	51	31
	7 ̶ 12 years	81	50
	> 13 years	18	11
Farming experience	None	15	9
	< 10 years	42	26
	10 ̶ 20 years	35	22
	> 20 years	70	43

Local knowledge of SQI used by farmers in Raymond Mhlaba municipality

Ninety-five percent of the farmers used soil cover as a measure of soil quality, while 91%, 93%, and 91% used soil compaction, crop performance, and soil infiltration, respectively (Table 2). The SQIs identified were based on the soil properties that farmers visually observed in their years of practicing farming when managing land. Since soil quality is measured by chemical, physical, and biological properties, the results of soil quality observation by farmers may be limited in providing a complete assessment of soil quality status. The results from this study conform to those of Omari et al. (2018), who reported that most smallholder farmers in the Sekyedumase district and Guinea savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana, as well as those of Buthelezi et al. (2013) in the KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, used visible characteristics to determine the quality condition of the soil. Other soil indicators revealed were taste, smell, and how light the soil was on the spade (soil tilth). Similar SQIs identified by the farmers corresponded with those reported in the literature (Kuria et al., 2018).

Table 2

Perceived soil and crop properties indicating soil quality (Total Sample N = 162, and N = 162 presented by soil quality indicator).
	Percentage proportion of respondents
Soil quality indicators	No %	Yes %
Soil cover	5	95
Soil compaction	9	91
Soil organic carbon	12	88
Soil biology	11	90
Crop performance	7	93
Soil infiltration	9	91
Soil erosion	14	86

Table 3 shows the responses on whether the SQIs were perceived to be good or bad for soil quality. The visual SQIs used by farmers were soil depth, color, and texture. Sand and clay soil textures were described as poor by 85% and 77% of the farmers, respectively, while 60% considered clay loam to be good soils. Many of the farmers perceived clay soils to be of poor quality and emphasized that these soils are difficult to till for crop production. Soils in the Eastern Cape Province are associated with highly dispersive and clayey soils (Parwada & Van Tol, 2019). Most farmers regarded light grey soils, red, yellowish-brown, and black soils as a poor indicators of soil quality, revealing that the tendency of these soils is to be sandy. Contrary to this, other studies conducted in various regions report that farmers perceive dark-colored soils as being associated with improved soil quality (Pauli et al., 2012; Omari et al., 2018; Myeni et al., 2019). In the current study, the farmers defined the dark soils with high clayey content as ‘isidaka’ (an isiXhosa word that means clay soil), as mentioned in the study by Manyevere et al. (2014). According to the farmers, these soils are difficult to till for crop production purposes. In the current study, decision making by farmers concerning land use management practices for improving soil quality was based on visible soil physical and biological properties.

Table 3

The description of soil texture and depth for crop-livestock systems by farmers in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality, Eastern Cape Province (Total Sample N = 162 and N = 162 presented by soil texture or depth).
	Poor %	Good %	No response %
Silt-clay loam (Isidaka)	41	48	11
Clay loam (udongwe)	86	12	2
Sand (Isanti)	79	18	9
Light grey	73	25	2
Yellowish-brown	65	22	13
Red (bomvu)	41	37	22
Dark-yellowish brown	35	19	46
Black (omnyama)	56	11	33
No topsoil	23	13	64
Topsoil is 5 cm	38	10	52
Topsoil is 10 cm	43	12	45
Topsoil is 20 cm	58	11	69
Topsoil is 30 cm	63	12	25

The results showed that the likelihood of identifying SQIs were not linked with the age of farmers, with the strength of the association being weak (Table 4). There was also no significant difference between farming experience and the knowledge of the identified SQIs, except for soil organic matter (p = 0.047) and soil biology (p = 0.018) variables. Most participants who had knowledge about the identified SQIs were above 60 years old, although this was not statistically significant (Fig. 2a–g). This could easily be explained by a sample size that had more of a certain age group. Participants with more than 20 years of farming experience had more knowledge about the mentioned SQIs (Fig. 3a–g). Likewise, the study by Belay et al. (2017) showed that more farming experience contributed to the knowledge and perception held by farmers about soils.

Table 4

Local knowledge and perceptions of soil quality indicators by age and farming experience (Total sample N = 162)
Variables		χ²	DF	P value	Phi/ Cramer’s V
Age	Soil cover	3.860	4	0.425	0.154/0.154
	Soil compaction	8.812	4	0.066	0.233/ 0.233
	Soil organic carbon	2.895	4	0.576	0.134/ 0.134
	Soil biology	2.620	4	0.623	0.127/ 0.127
	Crop performance	1.443	4	0.837	0.094/ 0.094
	Soil infiltration	1.169	4	0.883	0.085/ 0.085
	Soil erosion	2.504	4	0.644	0.124/ 0.124
Farming experience	Soil cover	2.403	3	0.493	0.122/ 0.122
	Soil compaction	3.465	3	0.325	0.146/ 0.146
	Soil organic carbon	7.939	3	0.047	0.221/ 0.221
	Soil biology	10.040	3	0.018	0.249/ 0.249
	Crop performance	4.781	3	0.189	0.172/ 0.172
	Soil infiltration	0.612	3	0.894	0.061/ 0.061
	Soil erosion	1.498	3	0.683	0.096/ 0.096

Qualitative results and discussion on land use management

Table 5 provides an overview of the themes and subthemes inferred from the qualitative strand of data analysis. The farmers provided explanations on the impact of land use management on crop and livestock production as a result of climate change and soil quality.

Table 5

Themes and sub-themes extrapolated using participants’ responses about the impact of soil quality and climate variability on land use managementmoringa uses in the Raymond Mhlaba municipality, Eastern Cape Province.
Themes	Subthemes
Perceived land use management changes impacting crop production	Crop rotation Fertilizer, compost, and manure application Tillage Cropland abandonment
Perceived land use management changes impacting livestock production	Grazing land enclosure Grazing rotation Vegetation invasion Overgrazing Contouring Stonewalling Rainwater harvesting
Perceived climate variability led to land use change	Extreme temperatures Extended drought periods Flooding
Perceived impacts land use impacting on soil quality	Erosion gullies Soil compaction Soil crusting Improved soil moisture Tilth

Impact of land use management changes on crop production

Prior to the decrease in rainfall events and intensity, manure and compost applications were thought to improve soil quality by farmers and were thus utilized as organic fertilizer on crop fields. However, it was reported that the application of organic fertilizers presented a challenge when the rainfall was insufficient, as the farmers used rainfed agricultural production. During low rainfall events, farmers mentioned that soil amended with cattle manure was becoming acidic and consequently unsuitable for crop production. The application of manure was observed to cause acidification of the soils, one participant said “At times manure would be too hot, it would burn the plants” as found in qoutation 68:11, 2 in 68 (Fig. 5). Scientifically, this is attributed to the limited leaching of toxic compounds out of the surface in the absence of sufficient water. According to Singh and Craswell (2021), a restriction in water circulation on fertilized soils might result in the accumulation of hazardous components from manure on the soil surface since the leaching process does not occur in the profile. In mitigating the challenge, the farmers revealed that they soaked it in water before application to prevent acidification. Since there was continuous low rainfall, the correction approach was not effective in reducing acid build-up, and farmers abandoned organic fertilizer application in crop fields. Manure is endorsed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as a practice essential for soil quality and as a climate smart agricultural practes (FAO, 2017). As such, it is utilized in many parts of the world as a mitigation tool for climate change and for improving crop productivity; for example, in Ghana and southern Ethiopia (Tanto & Laekemariam, 2019; Amfo et al., 2021).

The farmers mentioned that chemical fertilizers were used as supplements for the manure and compost. Although they used chemical fertilizers to increase yields in crop production, it was revealed that these fertilizers caused soil compaction and crusting. As such, crop fields were abandoned, and the farmers opted for backyard vegetable farming. These changes were also reported by the study of Mandiringana et al. (2005), which observed that crop fields were either abandoned or received little attention because of an increase in garden farming. The current finding on the abandonment of crop fields is in agreement with reports from previous studies (Manyevere et al., 2014; Blair et al., 2018; Myeni et al., 2019). The current study expands on the biophysical reasons for the crop fields abandonment and highlights the challenges with the use of perceived organic fertilizers such as manure and compost.

Farmers believed the use of a plough dragged by cows for tilling cultivated land to be an important cropping field management practice, but the practice was abandoned due to livestock reductions. This traditional practice has received little attention in South Africa, especially as a recommendation to resource-poor farmers;.In contrast, research on the topic is gaining attention elsewhere due to the rising benefits of integrating livestock with crop production (Franzluebbers, 2007; Belay et al., 2017; de Carvalho et al., 2020; Sekaran et al., 2021).

Impact of land use management changes on livestock production

The farmers mentioned that changing enclosure camps that were formerly rotated to increase grass growth aided in accelerating soil degradation and the expansion of low vegetative areas (Fig. 4). It was mentioned that there was a decrease in cattle numbers as well as cattle manure quantity, quality, and quantity. They also stated that these enclosure camps aided in the production of fattened animals and assisted vegetation development when the livestock were moved between camps. Moreover, livestock were important for food supply in farming communities, as were animal droppings, which are used as manure and composted material. Similarily, this changes are reported in the studies by Mhangara and Kakembo (2012) and Masiza et al. (2021) in the Keiskamma catchment of Raymond Mhlaba municipality.

Impact of climate variability on land use change

On crop production

According to the farmers, changes such as the abandonment of crop production were due to reductions in rainfall, increases in temperature, and flooding events. Similar findings about the effect of low rainfall and prolonged droughts on crop production were reported in Ghana (Amfo et al., 2021), South Africa (Popoola et al., 2019, 2020), Tunisia (Jeder et al., 2021), Central America (Harvey et al., 2018), and Kenya (Kalele et al., 2021). Generally, studies that suggest sustainable management practices for crop-producing smallholder farmers on rangelands are limited, and as a result, there is limited adoption of such practices. The use of organic fertilizers, mulching, planting of leguminous crops, retention of trees, and planting of shade trees by farmers in the current study was also reported in Ghana as climate change mitigation strategies (Amfo et al., 2021). In the marshlands of South Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo, farmers also used crop diversification, drainage, low-maintenance crops, and the use of mulch and manure as mitigating strategies against climate change (Balasha et al., 2023).

On livestock production

Farmers mentioned that the impact of climate change on cropland and grassland resulted in a severe reduction in their livestock and field crop production. Similar to this, Shrestha et al. (2022) observed that farmers in Nepal experienced a drop in crop production as well as the direct loss of agricultural land and animals due to the increased occurrence and severity of climate-induced risks. The transition to communal grazing land was viewed as a negative development for the soil, vegetation, and animal health and numbers. The rapid growth of sourgrass species that were perceived as undesirable for animals further decreased livestock productivity.

Impact of land use changes on soil quality

Figure 5 shows the different land use management practices perceived to have resulted in poor or improved soil quality. The reduction in soil moisture and increase in temperatures during drought periods have been observed to have negative impacts on soil quality. Soil moisture is important for microfauna survival and plant nutrient uptake, and its loss will have the negative impact on these activities (Peter, 2018; Nebo et al., 2020). According to the farmers, climate change affected the soil quality because the frequent flooding events resulted in gully formation that caused the removal of the soil surface in runoff water. The geology of the area is of the Beaufort Group, with Karoo dolerite intrusions penetrating through sills and dykes (IDP, 2017). In addition, the farmers noted that when crop production was halted in the crop fields, soil erosion led to the formation of gullies. Similarly, erosion gullies formed during the flooding events of 2020 and 2021 in South Africa's KwaZulu-Natal Province and Port Saint Johns (Ngarava et al., 2021; Archer et al., 2022; FAO, 2022). Reduced rainfall due to climate change poses a hazard to agricultural productivity because the soil becomes acidic. Most soils in the Eastern Cape Province are susceptible to crusting and compaction (Strauss et al., 2021). According to Nciizah and Wakindiki (2012), farmers should be on alert for crusting and compaction caused by climate change, as they are damaging to agricultural production.

Livestock camp rotation was employed to conserve the soil, whereas contouring was a technique used in agricultural fields to preserve soil. It was mentioned that both approaches improved soil moisture, structure, tilth, soil fertility, and water conservation. The results in this study agree with those made in Ethiopia which showed that, regardless of climate change, the integration of livestock and crops to improve grassland production was viewed as an indication of improved soil quality (Belay et al., 2017). Like in the current study, crop rotation is reported elsewhere to improve soil quality (Muzangwa et al., 2017; Omari et al., 2018; Myeni et al., 2019; Oduniyi et al., 2022).

The results of this paper have highlighted the role of livestock in land use restoration. However, little is known about local farmers' knowledge about livestock rotation as a sustainable management practice. The results are useful in informing decision-makers and researchers on the relevant management practices that have the potential to reduce soil degradation in rangelands. Furthermore, the knowledge acquired here could be critical for the implementation of any management strategies for sustainable land use that increase the quality of soils and agricultural output in rangelands while mitigating the negative effect of climate variability.

The current study gathered indigenous knowledge about the impact of climate variability on soil quality and agricultural production among farmers in Raymond Mhlaba municipality, as well as climate change mitigation strategies being implemented. The results showed that most farmers used visual SQIs such as soil texture, tilth, structure, and color to identify the quality of soils. Moreover, most farmers regarded the rise in temperature and changes in rainfall patterns as signs of climate change. Consequently, farmers have observed the negative impacts of these climatic changes on crop and livestock production. In attempts to mitigate the changing climate, farmers have adopted management practices to improve soil quality, such as applying compost and manure in crop production as well as practicing contouring, crop and livestock camp rotation. Soil quality is critical in livestock production, which supplies food to humans through meat and meat products, and indirectly in crop production through manure supply. Sustainable management practices for livestock production are key, and the farmers identified one. Livestock and crop rotation improve soil quality for crop regrowth and facilitate grass regrowth for livestock production. Policymakers need to take local management practices into account when designing socio-economic context-related sustainable practices for the smallholder farmer. In Raymond Mhlaba and other semi-arid regions globally, it is important to consider the local challenges associated with the benefitial application of manure. Farmers' observations are vital in helping us grasp the significance of low rainfall as a limitation of chemical mobility in the soil profile. Finally, considering the water efficiency issues in this municipality. The paper recommends further investigation into the role soils could play in water resource management in Raymond Mhlaba municipality and the results could be advantageous for the rest of semi-arid areas in South Africa and Africa.

Acknowledgements

This study was funded by the National Research Foundation (121634), Water Research Commission (3064/1/23) and Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre (C203) (South Africa).

Authors’ contributions

SN, AM: conceptualization and study design. SN: investigation, data collection, formal analysis, writing – the initial draft and writing – revisions. AM, CVM: writing – review and editing, validation. AM: funding acquisition, supervision, and project leadership. All authors read, reviewed, and approved the final draft.

Data availability

All data collected from this study will be made available in this publication or upon request from the authors.

Competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Ethical considerations

The authors received an approval from the University of Fort Hare’s Research Ethics Committee (REC-270710-028-RA Level 01) prior to data collection to ensure that the research was ethically conducted.

Aliber, M. (2009). Exploring statistics South Africa's national household surveys as sources of information about food security and subsistence agriculture. Human Sciences Research Council, Belville, South Africa.
Amfo, B., Ali, B.E., & Atinga, D. (2021). Climate change, soil water conservation, and productivity: evidence from cocoa farmers in Ghana. Agricultural Systems, 191(4), 103271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103172.
Avane, A., Amfo, B., Aidoo, R., & Mensah, J.O. (2021). Adoption of organic fertilizer for cocoa production in Ghana: perceptions and determinants. African Journal of Scientific Technology and Innovation Development, 14(3), 718-729. https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2021.1892254.
Atube, F., Malinga, G.M., Nyeko, M., Okello, D.M., Alarakol, S.P., & Okello‑Uma, I. (2021). Determinants of smallholder farmers' adaptation strategies to the effects of climate change: evidence from northern Uganda. Agriculture and Food Security, 10, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066 ̶ 020 ̶ 00279 ̶ 1.
Archer, E., du Toit, J., Engelbrecht, C., Hoffman, M.T., Landman, W., Malherbe, J., & Stern, M. (2022). The 2015 ̶ 19 multi year drought in the Eastern Cape, South Africa: it’s evolution and impacts on agriculture. Journal of Archives and Environment, 196, 104630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2021.104630.
Balasha, A.M., Munyahali, W., Kulumbu, J.T., Okwe, A.N., Fyama, J.N.M., Lenge, E.K., et al. (2023). Understanding farmers' perception of climate change and adaptation practices in the marshlands of South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo. Climate Risk Management, 39, 100469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2022.100469.
Barbero‐Sierra, C., Marques, M.J., Ruíz‐Pérez, M., Bienes, R., Cruz‐Maceín, J.L., & Goss, M. (2016). Farmer knowledge, perception, and management of soils in the Las Vegas agricultural district, Madrid, Spain. Soil Use and Management, 32(3), 446–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/sum.12278.
Belay, A., Recha, J.W., Woldeamanue, T., & Morton, J.F. (2017). Smallholder farmers' adaptation to climate change and determinants of their adaptation decisions in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Agriculture and Food Security, 6, 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0100-1.
Blair, D., Shackleton, C.M., & Mograbi, P. (2018). Cropland abandonment in South African smallholder communal lands: land cover change (1950–2010) and farmer perceptions of contributing factors. Land, 7, 121. https://doi:10.3390/land7040121.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Brown, P., Daigneault, A., & Dawson, J. (2019). Age, values, farming objectives, past management decisions, and future intentions in New Zealand agriculture. Journal of Environmental Management, 231, 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.018.
Buthelezi, N.N., Hughes, J.C., & Modi, A.T. (2013). The use of scientific and indigenous knowledge in agricultural land evaluation and soil fertility studies of two villages in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 8(6), 507–518. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR11.1108
Creswell, J.W. (2014). Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods approaches (4^th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.
De Carvalho, A.F., Fernandes-Filho, E.I., Daher, M., de Carvalho, L., Gomes, E., Cardoso, I.M., Bragança, R., Fernandes, A., & Carlos, E.G.R. (2020). Microclimate and soil and water loss in shaded and unshaded agroforestry coffee systems. Agroforest Systems, 95, 119–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00567-6.
Chari, M.M., Hamandawana, H., & Zhou, L. (2017). Using geostatistical techniques to map adaptive capacities of resource-poor communities to climate change: a case study of Nkonkobe Local Municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 10(5), 670–688. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-03-2017-0071.
Chari, M.M., Zhou, L., Ngarava, S., & Ningi, T. (2022). Determinants of food access in Raymond Mhlaba local municipality, South Africa. In Filho W.L., Kovaleva, M., Popkova E. (eds.) Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security. Springer Nature, Cham, Switzerland.
Du Preez, C.C., Van Huyssteen, C.W., & Mnkeni, P.N.S. (2011). Land use and soil organic matter in South Africa: a review on the influence of arable crop production. South African Journal Science, 107(5/6), 358. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajs.v107i5/6.35.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2017). The future of food and agriculture – trends and challenges. United Nations: Rome, Italy.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2018). Summary version. The future of food and agriculture alternative pathways to 2050. United Nations: Rome, Italy.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). (2022). A rapid geospatial analysis of the flood impacts on crops in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in 2022. United Nations: Rome, Italy.
Flick, U. (2008). Designing qualitative research. London, UK: SAGE publications.
Fosu-Mensah, B.Y., Vlek, P.L.G., & MacCarthy, D.S. (2012). Farmers' perception and adaptation to climate change: a case study of Sekyedumase district in Ghana. Environmental Development and Sustainability, 14, 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-012-9339-7.
Franzluebbers, A.J. (2007). Integrated crop–livestock systems in the Southeastern USA. Agronomy Journal, 99, 361–372. https://doi:10.2134/agronj2006.0076.
Harvey, C.A., Saborio‑Rodríguez, M., Martinez‑Rodríguez, M.R., Viguera, B., Chain‑Guadarrama, A., Vignola, R., & Alpizar, F. (2018). Climate change impacts and adaptation among smallholder farmers in Central America. Agriculture & Food Security, 7, 57. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0209-x.
Hebinck, P., & Van Averbeke, W. (2007). Rural transformation in the Eastern Cape. In: Hebinck, P. and Lent, P.C. (eds). Livelihoods and landscapes. The people of Guquka and Koloni and their resources. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers.
Huntley, B., Siegfried, R., & Sunter, C. (1989). South African environments into the 21st century. Human and Rousseau and Tafelberg Publishers, Cape Town.
IDP (Integrated Development Plan). (2017). Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality 2017/2022. Fort Beaufort, South Africa.
Jeder, H., Amira Abdelha, A., & Ahmed Salah, A. (2021). Smallholder farmers' perceptions and adaptation strategies to mitigate the effect of climate change in the oases of South-Eastern Tunisia. Mediterranean Journal of Economics, Agriculture, and Environment, 5, 3-15. https://doi.org/10.30682/nm2105a.
Jia, G., E. Shevliakova, P. Artaxo, N. De Noblet-Ducoudré, R. Houghton, J. House, K. Kitajima, C. Lennard, A. Popp, A. Sirin, R. Sukumar, L. Verchot, 2019: Land–climate interactions. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems [P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M, Belkacemi, J. Malley, (eds.)]. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157988.004.
Jordaan, A., Bahta, Y.T., & Phatudi-Mphahlele, B. (2019). Ecological vulnerability indicators to drought: case of communal farmers in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Jàmbá: Journal of Disaster Risk. Studies, 11(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.4102/jamba.v11i1.591.
Kalele, D.N., Ogara, W.O., Oludhe, C., & Onono, J.O. (2021). Climate change impacts and relevance of smallholder farmers' response in arid and semiarid lands in Kenya. Scientific African, 12, e00814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e00814.
Kuria, A.W., Barrios, C., Pagella, T., Muthuri, C.W., Mukuralinda, M., & Sinclair, F.L. (2019). Farmers' knowledge of soil quality indicators along a land degradation gradient in Rwanda. Geoderma Regional, 16, e00199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2018.e00199.
Magomani, M.I., & Van Tol, J. (2019). The impact of fire frequency on selected soil physical properties in a semiarid savannah Thornveld. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B—Soil and Plant Science, 69(1), 43-51. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2018.1495253.
Mekonnen, Z.A., Riley, W.A., Grant, R.F., & Romanovsky, V.E. (2021). Changes in precipitation and air temperature contribute comparably to permafrost degradation in a warmer climate. Environmental Research Letters, 16, 024008. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abc444.
Mhangara, P., Kakembo, V., & Lim, K.J. (2012). Soil erosion risk assessment of the Keiskamma catchment, South Africa using GIS and remote sensing. Environmental Earth Sciences, 65(7), 2087-2102.
Mhangara, P., & Kakembo, V. (2012). An object-based classification and fragmentation analysis of land use and cover change in the Keiskamma catchment, Eastern Cape, South Africa. World Applied Sciences Journal, 19(7), 1018-1029. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wasj.2012.19.07.955.
Maja, M.M., & Ayano, S.F. (2021). The impact of population growth on natural resources and farmers' capacity to adapt to climate change in low-income countries. Earth Systems and Environment, 5(2), 271-283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41748 ̶ 021 ̶ 00209 ̶ 6.
Mandiringana, O.T., Mnkeni, P.N.S., Mkile, Z., Van Averbeke, W., Van Ranst, E., Verplancke, H. (2005). Mineralogy and fertility status of selected soils of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Communications in Soil Science Plant Analysis, 36, 2431–2446.
Manjoro M., Kakembo, V., & Rowntree, K.M. (2012). Trends in soil erosion and woody shrub encroachment in Ngqushwa District, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Environmental Management, 49(3), 570-579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267 ̶ 012 ̶ 9810 ̶ 0.
Manyevere, A., Muchaonyerwa, P., Mnkeni, P.N.S., Laker, M.C. (2014). Farmers' perceptions with regard to crop production: an analysis of Nkonkobe Municipality, South Africa. JARTS, 115, 41–53.
Masiza, W., Hamisai, H., & Wisemen, C. (2021). Monitoring changes in land-use and land-cover to ascertain the nature, causes and extent of degradation in the savannahs of Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa. International Journal of Environmental Studies, 79(3), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2021.1886557.
McKether, W.E., & Friese, S. (2016). Qualitative social network analysis with ATLAS.ti increasing power in a black community. Universitätsverlag der TU Berlin, Germany.
Mcinga, S., Mnkeni, P.N.S., & Manyevere, A. (2021). Earthworm diversity and density as affected by soil and climatic factors in Raymond Mhlaba municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 38(1), 19-26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2020.1822453.
Mills, A.J., & Fey, M. (2004). Soil carbon and nitrogen in five contrasting biomes of South Africa exposed to different land uses. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 21(2), 94-03. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2004.10635030.
Monde, N., Botha, J.J., Joseph, L.F., Anderson, J.J., Dube, S., & Lesoli, M.S. (2012). Sustainable techniques and practices for water harvesting and conservation and their effective application in resource-poor agricultural production. Water Research Commission (WRC) Report No. 1478/1/12. Alice, South Africa.
Mucina, L., & Rutherford, M.C. (eds.) (2006). The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Strelitzia 19. South Africa National Biodiversity Institute. Pretoria, South Africa.
Muzangwa, L., Mnkeni, P.N.S., & Chiduza, C. (2017). Assessment of conservation agriculture practices by smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Agriculture, 7(3), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy7030046.
Muzangwa, L., Gura, I., Mcinga, S., Mnkeni, P.N.S., & Chiduza, C. (2022). Impact of conservation agriculture on soil health: lessons from the University of Fort Hare Trial. In Mkomwa, S. & Kassam, A.H. (Eds.) Conservation Agriculture in Africa: Climate Smart Agricultural Development.
Myeni, L., Moeletsi, M., Thavhana, M., Randela, M., & Mokoena, L. (2019). Barriers affecting sustainable agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Free State of South Africa. Sustainability, 11, 3003. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113003.
Nciizah, A.D., & Wakindiki, I.I.C. (2012). Aggregate stability and strength of a hard setting soil amended with cattle manure. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(1), 68-73. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR11.1271.
Nciizah, A.A., Mupambwa, H.A., Nyambo, P., Muchara, B., & Nantapo, C.W.T. (2021). Ecological agriculture's potential in building the resilience of smallholder agricultural soils under a changing climate. In Filho, W.L., & Ayal, L.D. (Eds.) Handbook of climate change management: research, leadership, transformation. (Springer Cham) 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 ̶ 3 ̶ 030 ̶ 22759 ̶ 3.
Nebo, G.N., Manyevere, A., Araya, T., & Van Tol, J. (2020). Short-term impact of conservation agriculture on soil strength and saturated hydraulic conductivity in the South African semiarid areas. Agriculture, 10, 414. http://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10090414.
Nethononda, L.O., & Odhiambo, J.O. (2011). Indigenous soil knowledge relevant to crop production of smallholder farmers at Rambuda irrigation scheme, Vhembe District South Africa. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(12), 2576-2581. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR10.1170.
Ngarava, S., Zhou, L., Mushunje, A., & Chaminuka, P. (2021). Impacts of floods on livestock production in Port St Johns, South Africa. In Nhamo, G., & Chapungu, L. (Eds.) the increasing risk of floods and tornadoes in Southern Africa. Sustainable Development Goals Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978 ̶ 3 ̶ 030 ̶ 74192 ̶ 1̶13.
NRF (National Research Foundation). 2018. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS): Knowledge Advancement and Support. Framework document, South Africa.
Nyambo, D.G., Luhanga, E.T., & Yonah, Z.Q. (2019). A review of characterization approaches for smallholder farmers: towards predictive farm typologies. Scientific World Journal, 6121467, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6121467.
Nyambo, P., Chiduza, C., & Araya, T. (2020). Carbon input and maize productivity as influenced by tillage, crop rotation, residue management and biochar in a semiarid region in South Africa. Agriculture, 10, 705. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10050705.
Oduniyi, O.S., Oyo, T.O., & Nyam, Y.S. (2022). Awareness and adoption of sustainable land management practices among smallholder maize farmers in Mpumalanga Province of South Africa. Africa. Geographical Review, 42, 2018661, https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2021.2018661.
Omari, R.A., Bellingrath ̶ Kimura, S.D., Addo, E.S., & Fujii, Y. (2018). Exploring farmers' indigenous knowledge of soil quality and fertility management practices in selected farming communities of the Guinea savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana. Sustainability, 10(4), 1034. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041034.
Ortiz, A., Outhwaite, M.D., Dalin, C.L., & Newbold, T. (2021). A review of the interactions between biodiversity, agriculture, climate change, and international trade: research and policy priorities. One Earth, 4(1), 88-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.12.008.
Parwada, C., & Van Tol, J. (2019). Effects of litter quality on macroaggregates reformation and soil stability in different soil horizons. Environmental Development Sustainability, 21, 13211339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668 ̶ 018 ̶ 0089 ̶ z .
Pauli, N., Barrios, E., Conacher, A.J., & Oberthür, T. (2012). Farmer knowledge of the relationships among soil macrofauna, soil quality and tree species in a smallholder agroforestry system of western Honduras. Geoderma, 189(190), 186-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.05.027.
Peter, M. (2008). Indigenous knowledge in disaster management in Africa: United Nations Environmental Program. Nairobi, Kenya.
Peter, P.C. (2018). Impacts of smallholder land use on physical-based soil organic matter fractions in soils with varying texture in ecotopes of Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 49(8), 889-902. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2018.1448406
Popoola, O.O., Monde, N., &Yusuf, S.F.G. (2019). Perception and adaptation responses to climate change: an assessment of smallholder livestock farmers in Amathole district municipality, Eastern Cape Province. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 47(2), 46–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413 ̶ 3221/2019/v47n2a502.
Popoola, O.O., Monde, N., & Yusuf, S.F.G. (2020). South African national climate change response policy sensitization: An assessment of smallholder farmers in Amathole District Municipality, Eastern Cape Province. Sustainability, 12, 2616. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072616.
Ropo, O.I., & Ibraheem, A.A. (2017). Response of cassava and maize yield to varying spatial scales of rainfall and temperature scenarios in Port Harcourt. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 11(4), 137-142. https://doi.org/10.3923/rjes.2017.137.142.
SADC (Southern Africa Development Community). (2020). Synthesis report on the state of food and nutrition security and vulnerability in Southern Africa.
Sekaran, U., Lai, L., Ussiri, D.A.N., Kumar, S., & Clay, S. (2021). Role of integrated crop-livestock systems in improving agriculture production and addressing food security – A review. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 5, 100190 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100190.
Shrestha, R., Rakhal, B., Adhikari, T.R., Ghimire, G.R., Talchabhadel, R., Tamang, D., Radhika, K.C. & Sharma, S. (2022). Farmers’ perception of climate change and its impacts on agriculture. Hydrology, 9, 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology9120212.
Singh, B. & Craswell, E. (2021). Fertilizers and nitrate pollution of surface and ground water: an increasingly pervasive global problem. SN Applied Sciences, 3, 518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04521-8
Stats SA, (2011). Census 2011, Pretoria Statistics South Africa.
Strauss, J. (2021). A history of conservation agriculture in South Africa. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 38, 1979112. https://doi.org/10.1080/02571862.2021.1979112.
The local government handbook South Africa (2021). A complete guide to municipalities in South Africa. Available at: https://cdn.lgseta.co.za/resources/YES_MEDIA_Local_Government_Handbook_2021_PDF_Version.pdf (Accessed 17 July 2023).
Tanto, T., & Laekemariam, F. (2019). Impacts of soil and water conservation practices on soil property and wheat productivity in southern Ethiopia. Environmental and Systematic Research, 8(13), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-019-0142-4.
Thomas, D.R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analysing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 237–246.
United Nations. 2022. Population Division. 2022. World population prospects 2022: summary of results. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Available at: https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf (Accessed 19 June 2023).
United Nations. 2020. The sustainable development goals report. Available at: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report (Accessed 19 June 2023).
Weldearegay, S.K., & Tedla, D.G. (2018). Impact of climate variability on household food availability in Tigray, Ethiopia. Agriculture and Food Security, 7, 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-017-0154-0.

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Editorial decision: Revision requested
07 Apr, 2024
Reviews received at journal
28 Mar, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
04 Mar, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
04 Dec, 2023
Reviewers invited by journal
29 Sep, 2023
Editor assigned by journal
29 Sep, 2023
Submission checks completed at journal
29 Sep, 2023
First submitted to journal
28 Sep, 2023

You are reading this latest preprint version

Exploring local knowledge on soil quality indicators, climate variability, and farming productivity: a case of farmers in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Methodology

Description of the study site

Participants and data collection

Ethical considerations

Data analysis

Result and Discussion

Demographic profile of farmers

Local knowledge of SQI used by farmers in Raymond Mhlaba municipality

Qualitative results and discussion on land use management

Impact of land use management changes on livestock production

Impact of climate variability on land use change

On crop production

On livestock production

Impact of land use changes on soil quality

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1