Use of Modern Spacing Contraceptives among tribal non-tribal married women in Rajasthan: Evidence from NFHS-5

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3395443/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Use of Modern Spacing Contraceptives among tribal non-tribal married women in Rajasthan: Evidence from NFHS-5

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3395443/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Background

In India, Girls in Tribal communities get married traditionally immediately after attaining menarche. Deplorably most tribal women are not informed about modern spacing contraceptive use, as service providers frequently neglect to provide this information. As a result, tribal women often suffer in silence, which can lead to serious health problems. The present study aims to understand the use of modern spacing methods as well as the various socio-demographic factors affecting its usage among tribal and non-tribal women across the districts in Rajasthan.

Methods

We included 30,414 tribal and non-tribal married women participants aged 15 to 49 years from National Family Health Survey 5 conducted during the years 2019 to 2021. Descriptive statistics were used to compute the prevalence of modern spacing contraceptive use along with a 95% confidence interval (CI) as a measure. The association between various socio-demographic predictors and modern spacing contraceptive usage was assessed by logistic regression.

Results

The overall prevalence of modern spacing contraceptive practices was found low among tribal compared to non-tribal women, which was below the national average. Use of the modern spacing method is higher in Nagaur, Kota (non-tribal and tribal), and low in Jaisalmer, Tonk (non-tribal), and Karauli and Jalor (tribal) districts of Rajasthan. Age, age at first sex, education, wealth index, and place of residence were significantly associated with the use of modern spacing methods among tribal and non-tribal women in Rajasthan.

Conclusion

There is an immediate need to improve access to modern spacing contraceptive methods and reduce unmet needs for contraceptives among tribal women. There is a requirement for sustained and targeted efforts from healthcare workers towards the tribal communities.

Modern Spacing contractive method

tribal and non-tribal community

Socio-economic

Rajasthan

Contraception is a means of preventing pregnancy and is a crucial determinant of fertility. There are various methods of contraception that can be broadly categorised under reversible methods and permanent methods. These include but are not limited to Hormonal contraceptive methods, Intra-Uterine Devices, Emergency contraception, condoms, and Lactational amenorrhea method [1]. Modern spacing methods include pills, IUDs, injectables, diaphragm, condoms, LAM (Lactation Amenorrhea method), foam, and jelly [2].

However, the choice of contraceptive methods is largely influenced by a number of factors such as demographic, cultural, economic, and social factors [3]. The usage of contraceptives is fundamental to family planning and plays an important role in deciding the desired number of children required andensuring proper spacing between the births of children. Hence, it is very crucial to have knowledge and information about various contraception methods and services as it is fundamental to the health and human rights of all the people in the world. Worldwide cases of delayed pregnancies, unwanted pregnancies, teenage pregnancies,and several other related problems have always been an issue. To address these, family planning plays an important role and provides several health benefits as contraception is one of the ways of reducing unintended pregnancies and unsafe abortions. As per the report by WHO, according to 2017 estimates 214 million women of reproductive age have an unmet need for contraception in developing regions [4].

Improvements in reproductive health are essential for reducing maternal mortality and child mortality as well as achieving the Millennium Development Goals on the same [5]. Safe access to effective contraceptive methods for women is crucial for ensuring the same along with it the promotion of family planning methods so as to avoid unwanted pregnancies which is central to improving maternal health [4]. It is also known that the proper usage of contraceptives like condoms helps in preventing not only pregnancy and related issues but also sexually transmitted infections including HIV. Therefore, it is important that people in their reproductive age have access to preferred contraceptive methods which leads to advancements of fundamental human rights like right to life and liberty, freedom of opinion and expression, and right to work and education as well as ensuring that they live a healthy life.

The decades between 1950-55 to 2005–2010 witnessed a sharp fall in family size by half from an estimated average of 5 to 2.5 [6]. Since the 1960s use of contraceptivesincrease from an estimated 67% -72% in developed countries to 9%-61% in developing countries [7].While the average number of children continues to be higher in developing countries, yet the steepest decline in family size has actually taken place in developing countries. Along with the increase in the use of contraceptives, the type of methods being used have also undergone a dramatic change [8].The types of methods and patterns of change are also different between the developed and the developing countries. While the most commonly used modern method among married women in developed countries is the use of oral contraceptives and condoms, in the developing countries the use of female sterilization and IUDs is more common [9–10].

Similarly in India, in 2005 the use of modern contraceptive use was 70%, and there was heavy dependence on female sterilization rather than other reversible contraceptive methods [11].However, the use of modern spacing methods was very low in India. Around 2005-06, only about 10% of women were using modern spacing methods with massive variation across socio-economic groups[12]. Not only is the adoption of the modern spacing methods low but its continuation remains a huge concern. Almost 50% of pill and condom users and 20% of IUD users discontinue within the first year of adoption[13]. This stems from the fact that family planning policies in India have always aimed at controlling population growth rather than advancing women’s reproductive rights and choices [14–15]. This has led to the promotion of sterilization targeted almost exclusively towards women. While Government policy has undergone a change in recent decades with the introduction and promotion of injectable contraceptives, non-hormonal weekly pills, and progesterone-only pills for lactating mothers, the use of reversible contraceptive methods as well as male sterilization is still very low in India. At present in India, most of people are aware of the various methods of contraception. As per NFHS–5 data more than 99% of currently married women and men in their reproductive years are aware of at least one method of contraception. As per the survey data, female sterilisation continues to be the dominant method of contraceptive use among women in India [12 16]. While there is substantial demand for reversible contraception among young married women very few have the access to the same (Ghule et. al., 2015). Barriers to contraceptive use can be largely attributed to problems in accessing the service centres. Additionally, it also includes a whole host of economic, administrative, and psychosocial factors[1]. Studies on NFHS-4 (2017) documented that there are huge geographic variations in the uptake of modern contraceptives ranging from 23.6% in Manipur to 93.6% in Andhra Pradesh.

Tribal population or indigenous population are vulnerable group in the society who have low awarenessabout family planning and various methods of contraceptives and its usage. Tribal live in poorcommunities with low educational attainment and limited access to healthcare. As per Census 2011, 104 million population belong to tribal group known as Schedules Tribes who are known to remain marginalgeographically, socio–economically and politically. Tribal’s in India have many spatial and socio-culturaldifferences and therefore they have their own cultural practices which lead to highfertility. Previous studies conducted show that the population growth rate among tribal groups was higher than that of the rest of Rajasthan [18–19]. With 13.48% of tribal population, the five districts of Udaipur, Banswara, Dungarpur, Jaipur and Sawai Madhopur contributed to almost two-thirds of the total tribal population in the Rajasthan. Despite a higher sex ratio at birth, low levels of female literacy and lack of access to reproductive health services have contributed to very high infant and child mortality rates among the tribal groups in Rajasthan. Additionally, there is also a significant gap between aspirational fertility rate of 2.9 to actual fertility rate of 4.3 [18]. While knowledge about modern contraceptive methods was prevalent, most tribal families preferred using traditional methods to prevent child birth.

Data

The present study utilized the cross-sectional data from the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) conducted during 2019-21. The NFHS-5 provides information on population, maternal and child health, domestic violence, and family planning for India, each state/union territory (UT), and 707 districts. NFHS-5 fieldwork for India was conducted in two phases— Phase-I from 17 June 2019 to 30 January 2020 covering 17 states and 5 UTs and Phase-II from 2 January 2020 to 30 April 2021 covering 11 states and 3 UTs. The NFHS-5 sample is a stratified two-stage sample. The 2011 census served as the sampling frame for the selection of PSUs. PSUs were villages in rural areas and Census Enumeration Blocks (CEBs) in urban areas. PSUs with less than 40 households were linked to the nearest PSU and within each rural stratum, villages were selected from the sampling frame with probability proportional to size (PPS). In each stratum, six approximately equal sub-strata were created by crossing three sub-strata, each created based on the estimated number of households in each village, with two sub-strata, each created based on the percentage of the population belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes (SCs/STs). Within each explicit sampling stratum, PSUs were sorted according to the prevalence of literacy of women age 6 + years. The final sample PSUs were selected with PPS systematic sampling. In urban areas, CEB information was obtained from the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi. CEBs were sorted according to the percentage of the SC/ST population in each CEB, and sample CEBs were selected with PPS systematic sampling. Details of the sample size, design, and sample weights in NFHS-5 are freely available on the respective websites (http://rchiips.org/nfhs/) and can be accessed without any official requests. NFHS-5 surveyed a total of 636,699 households, 724,115 women, and 101,839 men, with a response rate of 97 percent.

Final sample size

The effective sample size for the present study was 724,112 women. The present study area is based on Rajasthan and 42,514women aged 15–49 years. Moreover, the number of women in who tribal community in the age group 15–49 was 6,627.

Measures

Dependent variable

The dependent variable in this study is “modern spacing contractive use”. Two questions were used to determine the women using modern spacing contraceptive methods: (1) Are you currently doing something or using any method to delay or avoid getting pregnant? if yes: (2) which method, are you using? The modern methods of family planning include sterilization, injectables, intrauterine devices (IUDs/PPIUDs), contraceptive pills, implants, the standard day's method, condoms, diaphragm, foam/jelly, the lactational amenorrhea method, and emergency contraception. We further, spite modern contractive into the traditional and permanent modern contractive and Spacing /temporary modern contractive methods. Whereas, women utilizing the modern spacing contraceptive methods were coded as ’1’, otherwise ’0’.

Explanatory variable

Various explanatory characteristics related to women, husbands, and households were included in the analysis. Women’s characteristics include age of women (15–24 years, 25–34 years, 35–49 years) age at first sex (< 18 years, ≥ 18 years), educational status (no educated,primary, secondary, higher), working status (currently working, currently not working), Husband’scharacteristics include educational status (not educated,secondary, primary, higher). Household characteristics consists of wealth index (poorest, poorer, middle, richer,richest), religion (Hindu, Muslim, Christian, others), caste (ScheduledCaste, Scheduled Tribe, Other Backward Class, others),place of residence (urban, rural), regions of Rajasthan (north,central, east, northeast, west, south).

Statistical analysis

Bi-variate logistic regression was used to examine the use of the modern spacing contraceptive method among both tribal and non-tribal women in Rajasthan.

Figure 1 above shows the percentage distribution of modern spacing contraceptive methods amongst tribal and non-tribal currently married women in Rajasthan. As per the data, Nagaur has the highest percentage of tribal (28%) and non-tribal women (46.8%)using modern spacing contraceptive methods followed by Kota, Jodhpur and Sikar. The percentage usage of modern spacing contraceptives amongst tribals lie around 20% - 28%. Karauli has the lowest percentage of tribal women using modern spacing contraceptives followed by Bharatpur, Rajsamand, and Pali. The percentage usage of modern spacing contraceptives amongst non-tribals lies around 47 percent with Nagaur. Tonk district has the lowest percentage (1.5%) of non-tribal women using modern spacing contraceptives followed by Jaisalmer, Sawai Madhopur, and Bharatpur.

Table 1 above shows the sample characteristics of the study population such as age groups, age at first sex, education level, currently working, husband’s education level, wealth index, religion, place of residence, and different zones ofRajasthan, Among different age groups of currently married women for both the categories scheduled as well non-scheduled tribe category the major concentration of women is in 35 – 49 age group which accounts for approximately 40% of the population of women. In the age at first sex category, concentration of women is in the age group of women who are 18 or more than 18 for both the caste categories. More than half (55%) of the population of women in the scheduled tribe category falls in no education level. Further a large part of tribal as well as non – tribal women belong to ‘not working’ category. Husband’s education also plays a major role and mostly they have secondary level of education for both tribal and non–tribal category. In the wealth index category, a large part of scheduled tribe women are poor whereas in the non-tribal category women are mostly in the middle and richer wealth index levels. Majorly women follow Hindu religion and reside in rural regions. Across different zones, tribal women are majorly concentrated in the Southern region whereas non–tribal women are majorly concentrated in north-eastern region.

Table 2. above shows the percentage of modern spacing contraceptive methods by the background characteristics of women belong to tribal and non-tribal. The use of modern spacing methods is high among non-tribal (20%) women compared to tribal (115%) women. Women age, education, husband education, wealth index, religion, place of residence, and region of Rajasthan are significantly associated with modern spacing methods among both tribal and non-tribal women. According to age of women, majorly of women in the age group 15-24 years prefer to use modern spacing method then other older adult women both among tribes and non-tribal women.The usage of contraceptives for people of age of 18 or more and having sex for the first time also show higher prevalence for other methods for both scheduled as well as non–scheduled tribe women. However, according the women's education, with increasing education, the use of modern spacing methods also increases among both tribes and non-tribe women. Indistinguishable results were also found among husband education and wealth index. Further, the use of the modern spacing method is high among women who stays in urban then rural Conforming to the Rajasthan region, uses of the modern spacing method is high in the northern region among both tribes and non-tribe’s women.

Numerous characteristics, including the age of the tribal married women, their education, age at first sex, working status, wealth status, place of residence, region of Rajasthan has an influence on the modern spacing contraceptive practice. Table 3. illustrates the odds for use of modern spacing contraceptive methods among tribal and non-tribal women in Rajasthan. Findings revealed that with the growing age the odds of modern spacing contraception use decrease in, 35-49age group among both tribal [OR: 049: 027-0.89] and non-tribal [OR:0.45; 0.35-0.58]. Women with secondary and higher level of education are more likely to use modern spacing contraceptive methods than the illiterate women among both tribal and non-tribal women. Similar, results were also found according working status of both tribal and non-tribal women. Women belonging to other religion among tribal [OR: 3.22; 0.43-24.21] and for non-tribal [OR: 1.49; 1.16-1.91] were considerably more likely to use modern contraceptive methods as compared to other religion in this study. Whereas, according to wealth status, with increasing the wealth status of women the uses of modern spacing contraceptive methods among both tribal and non-tribal women. As the Rajasthan of region, use of modern spacing method high in northern region then other region of Rajasthan.

The acceptance of a contraceptive method is influenced by myriad factors which include but are not limited to the social and cultural practices prevalent in a community, the attitudes towards family planning, level of awareness and knowledge, access and availability of family planning services, and prevalence of traditional methods [19]. Previous studies of choice of method use across social groups have documented that the prevalence of traditional methods of contraception was the highest among STs. This may be mainly owing to the limited accessibility to health services among tribal communities [20]. District-level analysis of modern contraceptive usage between women of tribal and non-tribal communities shows that there is not much variation in pattern. The variations in usage closely follow differences across district-level patterns rather than across the communities. Take for instance the cases of districts with the highest prevalence of modern methods among women. Nagaur has the highest prevalence of modern methods both among tribal and non-tribal women. Commensurate with previous studies, this analysis also highlights that the prevalence of modern methods among both tribal and non-tribal women is the highest in the Southern region which include the districts of Banswara, Dungarpur, Pratapgarh, Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand and Bhilwara [20–21].

Similar trends in modern method use among women of tribal and non-tribal communities prompts a deeper analysis into the other factors affecting the prevalence of modern methods. Across age groups, both tribal and non-tribal, women prefer other methods of contraception than modern methods. Corresponding to findings in previous studies, the prevalence of modern methods of contraceptive use increases as the age of the woman increases. Women falling within the age group of 35–49 years are seen to opt for modern methods more compared to other age groups [20]. Among non-tribal women the prevalence rate of modern methods is higher in Urban areas compared to rural areas [3]. For Tribal women, there seems to lower prevalence rate of modern methods in Urban areas compared to rural areas. This could be attributed to greater accessibility of modern methods among women belonging to non-tribal groups in urban areas [20].

Education has emerged as a crucial factor affecting the usage of contraceptives. As shown in the analysis, women with secondary and higher levels of education were seen to have a higher prevalence rate of modern methods compared to women with no education. Women with higher levels of education were found to have better awareness regarding contraceptive use as compared to women with low or no education [22–23]. Women who have completed more than ten years of schooling were seen to have the highest contraceptive prevalence rate both modern and traditional [24–25 20].

Similarly both for tribal and non-tribal women, it can be seen that women who are working have a higher prevalence rate of modern methods compared to non-working women. This may be attributed to greater awareness, accessibility, affordability, and agency in choosing contraceptive methods compared to non-working women [26–27]. Husband’s education is another significant factor contributing to the choice of modern methods. While for non-tribal women the preference for modern methods increases with the higher educational attainment of their husband, for tribal women it does not seem to have much of an effect in their choice of modern methods. The overall lower levels of literacy among tribal communities compared to non-tribal communities is assumed to be the reason behind the same [28]. The preference for modern methods is seen to increase with the rise in wealth index among tribal women. This is similar to findings in other studies wherein the affordability of modern methods is seen to increase for women as they move up the wealth quintiles [29–30]. Among religious groups, the usage of modern methods is the highest among Hindus compared to other religions. This is mainly attributed to greater social-economic status wherein accessibility to contraceptives becomes much easier among Hindus compared to other religious groups [31].

The lack of significant gap in the method preference between tribal and non-tribal women. Additionally, the greater influence of the age of the women, educational status, working status, and place of residence as major determining factors shows that preference for modern methods hinges more upon awareness and accessibility than anything else. Easier access, better affordability, and more awareness are crucial factors that determine a woman’s choice of contraceptive methods. There is an immediate need for targeted family planning interventions wherein modern methods are made more easily accessible and affordable for women across social groups. Efficient implementation of such targeted interventions by the Government of Rajasthan may help in reducing the inequalities in the contraceptive prevalence rate, improving maternal mortality, and achieving the developmental goals of Rajasthan.

Acknowledgments

Not applicable

Author contributions

NK made a significant contribution to the conception of the idea and design. NK and DK analysed and interpreted the data. NK and SP wrote the original draft of the manuscript. ND and SP reviewed and edited the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

No funding was available for preparing this manuscript.

Data availability statement

The datasets analysed during the current study are from National Family Health Survey (NFHS) for India. The data is freely available from the DHS website, The DHS Program, India: Standard DHS, 2019–21 Dataset.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

NFHS-5 survey has been conducted by the International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) under the MoHFW. The approval for NFHS-5 was obtained from the Ethics Review Board of the IIPS, Mumbai, India and ICF International Review Board (IRB). In this survey, written consent was obtained from the participants before the commencement of the interview. Each participants’ approval was sought, and then only interviews were conducted. Confidentiality was maintained as NFHS-5 published gathered data with no identifiable information of the survey participants

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

World Health Organization, “Family Planning and Contraceptive Methods”, 2020. Accessed on June 15^th, 2023 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/family-planning-contraception
Nayak, Soumya Ranjan, Sanjay K. Mohanty, Bidhubhusan Mahapatra, and Umakanta Sahoo. "Spatial heterogeneity in discontinuation of modern spacing method in districts of India." Reproductive Health 18, no. 1 (2021): 1-12.
Chaurasia, Aalok Ranjan. "Contraceptive use in India: a data mining approach." International Journal of Population Research 2014 (2014).
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS., and World Health Organization. 2008 report on the global AIDS epidemic. World Health Organization, 2008.
Cleland, John, Stan Bernstein, Alex Ezeh, Anibal Faundes, Anna Glasier, and Jolene Innis. "Family planning: the unfinished agenda." The lancet 368, no. 9549 (2006): 1810-1827.
Darroch, Jacqueline E. "Trends in contraceptive use." Contraception 87, no. 3 (2013): 259-263.
McNicoll, Geoffrey. "United nations department of economic and social affairs, population division: Population, resources, environment and development database, version 4.0." Population and Development Review 32, no. 4 (2006): 790-791.
Weinberger, Mary Beth. "Recent trends in contraceptive use." Population bulletin of the United Nations 36 (1994): 55-80.
Mauldin, W. Parker, and Sheldon J. Segal. "Prevalence of contraceptive use: trends and issues." Studies in Family Planning 19, no. 6 (1988): 335-353.
Singh, Susheela, Jacqueline E. Darroch, Lori S. Ashford, and Michael Vlass off. Adding It Up: The costs and Benefits of Investing in family Planning and maternal and new born health. Guttmacher Institute, 2009.
Ewerling, Fernanda, Cesar G. Victora, Anita Raj, Carolina VN Coll, Franciele Hellwig, and Aluisio JD Barros. "Demand for family planning satisfied with modern methods among sexually active women in low-and middle-income countries: who is lagging behind?." Reproductive health 15 (2018): 1-10.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS). National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4), 2015–16. IIPS. Mumbai, India; 2016.
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS). National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005-06. IIPS. Mumbai, India; 2006.
Maru, Rushikesh M. "Incentives and disincentives in the Indian family welfare program." Studies in family planning 17, no. 3 (1986): 136-145.
Chatterjee, Nilanjana, and Nancy E. Riley. "Planning an Indian modernity: The gendered politics of fertility control." Signs: Journal of women in culture and society 26, no. 3 (2001): 811-845.
Ewerling, Fernanda, Lotus McDougal, Anita Raj, Leonardo Z. Ferreira, Cauane Blumenberg, Divya Parmar, and Aluisio JD Barros. "Modern contraceptive use among women in need of family planning in India: an analysis of the inequalities related to the mix of methods used. Reproductive Health 18, no. 1 (2021): 1-12.
Ghule, Mohan, Anita Raj, Prajakta Palaye, Anindita Dasgupta, Saritha Nair, Niranjan Saggurti, Madhusudana Battala, and Donta Balaiah. "Barriers to use contraceptive methods among rural young married couples in Maharashtra, India: qualitative findings." Asian journal of research in social sciences and humanities 5, no. 6 (2015): 18.
Nagda, Bheru Lal. "Tribal population and health in Rajasthan." Studies of Tribes and Tribals 2, no. 1 (2004): 1-8.
Singh, L. P., and K. Srinivasan. "Family planning and the scheduled tribes of Rajasthan: Taking stock and moving forward." Journal of Health Management 2, no. 1 (2000): 55-80.
TP, Sherin Raj, V. K. Tiwari, and J. V. Singh. "Regional Variation in Contraceptive use in Rajasthan: Demographic and Socio-Economic Challenges. Health and Population: Perspective and Issues. 2018. 41 (1& 2), 37-56.
Bhasin, M. K., and Shampa Nag. "Demography of the tribal groups of Rajasthan: 5. Dynamics of family planning methods usage." The Anthropologist 9, no. 2 (2007): 99-106.
Singh, Mahesh Nath, and Niyati Joshi. "Dynamics of contraceptive use among schedule caste women in Uttar Pradesh." International Journal of Reproduction, Contraception, Obstetrics and Gynecology 3, no. 3 (2014): 566-574.
Raju, S. Siva. Regional development and family planning. Daya Books, 1987.
Jain, Anrudh K., and Moni Nag. "Importance of female primary education for fertility reduction in India." Economic and Political Weekly (1986): 1602-1608.
Jejeebhoy, Shireen J. "Women's education, autonomy, and reproductive behaviour: Experience from developing countries." OUP Catalogue (1995).
Takkar, N., P. Goel, P. K. Saha, and D. Dua. "Contraceptive practices and awareness of emergency contraception in educated working women." Indian Journal of medical sciences 59, no. 4 (2005): 143-149.
Kumar, Manisha, Jyoti Meena, Sumedha Sharma, Anju Poddar, Vikas Dhalliwal, S. C. Modi-Satish Chander Modi, and Kamlesh Singh. "Contraceptive use among low-income urban married women in India." The journal of sexual medicine 8, no. 2 (2011): 376-382.
Rana, Suman, and Wairokpam Premi Devi. "A review on educational status of scheduled tribes of Rajasthan." the NCERT and no matter may be reproduced in any form without the prior permission of the NCERT. 43, no. 3 (2017): 49.
Bandhi, Gayatri, Dhiraj Bhawnani, Nirmal Verma, and Gopal P. Soni. "Assessment of contraceptive knowledge and practices among reproductive age group of women in urban slums of Raipur City, Chhattisgarh, India." National Journal of Community Medicine 5, no. 04 (2014): 349-354.
Zavier, AJ Francis, and Sabu S. Padmadas. "Postabortion contraceptive use and method continuation in India." International Journal of Gynecology& Obstetrics 118, no. 1 (2012): 65-70.
Iyer, Sriya. "Religion and the decision to use contraception in India." Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41, no. 4 (2002): 711-722.

Table 1: Sample Characteristics of the study population, 2015-16
	Non – Tribal		Scheduled Tribe (ST)
Background Characteristics	Sample	Percentage	Sample	Percentage
Age of women
15-24	4720	18.4	1024	21.32
25-34	9925	38.8	1822	37.93
35-49	10965	42.8	1958	40.76
Age at first sex
Less than 18	1522	42.6	134	43.23
18 or more than 18	2044	57.2	176	56.77
Educational Level
No Education	9937	38.8	2689	55.97
Primary	4292	16.8	697	15.51
Secondary	8678	33.9	1144	23.81
Higher	2703	10.6	274	5.70
Currently Working
Currently not working	3032	77.8	524	66.50
Currently working	863	22.2	264	33.50
Husband education level
No Education	525	13.49	161	20.51
Primary	500	12.85	140	17.83
Secondary	2131	54.71	376	47.72
Higher	735	18.87	108	13.71
Wealth Index
Poorest	2296	8.97	2028	42.21
Poorer	5077	19.82	1378	28.68
Middle	6204	24.22	774	16.11
Richer	6244	24.38	403	8.39
Richest	5789	22.60	221	4.60
Religion
Hindu	22823	89.12	4778	99.46
Muslim	2329	9.09	12	0.25
Christian	7	0.03	8	0.17
Other	451	1.76	6	0.12
Place of residence
Urban	5978	23.34	266	5.54
Rural	19632	76.66	4538	94.46
Rajasthan Region
Northern	7034	27.47	129	2.69
Western	5332	20.82	576	11.99
North-eastern	7412	28.94	1137	23.67
Southern	1774	6.93	1698	35.35
South-eastern	4058	15.85	1264	26.31

Table 2. Percentage of modern spacing contraceptive methods among currently married women of tribal & non- tribal community women by background characteristics in Rajasthan, 2019-2021
	Tribal Population (ST)			Non-tribal Population (Others)
Background Characteristics	Other methods	Modern spacing methods	P-Value	Other methods	Modern spacing methods	P-Value
Age group of women			0.000			0.000
15-24	76.5	23.5		72.8	27.2
25-34	80.4	19.6		73.8	26.2
35-49	93.5	6.5		88.8	11.2
Age at first sex			0.561			0.000
Less than 18	81.7	18.3		81.6	18.4
18 or more than 18	79.8	20.9		73.6	26.4
Educational Level			0.000			0.000
No Education	90.4	9.6		89.5	10.6
Primary	85.3	14.7		81.9	18.2
Secondary	77.0	24.0		75.8	24.2
Higher	70.1	30.0		60.3	39.7
Currently Working			0.555			0.018
No	82.6	17.37		78.5	21.5
Yes	85.5	14.47		82.4	17.6
Husband/partner's education level			0.034			0.000
No Education	83.8	16.2		90.9	9.1
Primary	89.0	11.0		84.0	16.0
Secondary	83.3	16.7		80.7	19.3
Higher	80.3	19.8		65.2	34.8
Wealth Index			0.000			0.000
Poorest	87.5	12.5		87.7	12.3
Poorer	84.6	15.4		85.4	14.6
Middle	85.0	15.0		83.9	16.1
Richer	80.7	19.3		79.0	21.0
Richest	75.0	25.9		71.4	28.6
Religion			0.031			0.000
Hindu	85.0	15.0		80.7	19.3
Muslim	60.6	39.4		74.9	26.0
Christian	68.8	31.2		87.3	12.8
Other	56.5	43.5		74.0	26.0
Place of residence			0.000			0.000
Urban	73.1	26.9		72.7	27.3
Rural	85.6	14.4		82.7	17.3
Rajasthan Region			0.000			0.000
Northern	74.0	27.0		76.6	23.4
Western	83.8	16.2		80.7	19.3
North-eastern	90.2	9.8		83.4	16.6
Southern	82.4	17.6		80.8	19.3
South-eastern	86.2	13.9		77.8	22.2
Total	88.9	15.1		80.1	19.9

Note: ® Reference, CI Confidence Interval; Significance level: *<0.01, **<0.005, ***<0.001

Table 3. Logistic regression estimates for modern spacing contraceptive methods among currently married tribal and non-tribal women in Rajasthan by background characteristics, 2019-21
	Tribal Women				Non-Tribal Women
Background Characteristics	Odds Ratio	p-value	[95% Conf. Interval]		Odds Ratio	p-value	[95% Conf. Interval]
Age of women			Lower	Upper			Lower	Upper
less than 25®
25-34	1.09	0.730	0.67	1.77	0.96	0.700	0.78	1.18
35-49	0.49	0.020	0.27	0.89	0.45	0.000	0.35	0.58
Education
No education ®
primary	1.60	0.13	0.87	2.95	0.20	0.020	1.07	1.87
secondary	2.07	0.01	1.16	3.69	0.26	0.000	1.55	2.56
higher	3.12	0.10	1.20	8.10	0.56	0.000	2.24	4.49
Women working Status
Not working ®
Working	1.18	0.47	0.75	1.85	1.14	0.23	0.92	1.41
Husband Education
No education®
Primary	0.65	0.25	0.31	1.35	1.42	0.10	0.94	2.13
Secondary	0.88	0.71	0.46	1.68	1.52	0.02	1.07	2.17
Higher	0.91	0.83	0.37	2.20	1.99	0.00	1.32	3.00
Wealth Index
Poorest ®
poorer	1.48	0.13	0.90	2.45	0.87	0.48	0.6	1.27
middle	1.07	0.85	0.56	2.07	0.76	0.16	0.52	1.11
richer	1.72	0.22	0.72	4.13	0.95	0.78	0.65	1.39
richest	2.04	0.26	0.60	6.98	0.96	0.85	0.64	1.45
Religion
Hindu ®
other	3.22	0.26	0.43	24.21	1.49	0.00	1.16	1.91
Place of Residence
Rural®
Urban	0.50	0.29	0.14	1.79	1.52	0	1.23	1.87
Region of Rajasthan
Northern ®
North-Eastern	0.15	0.00	0.56	0.52	0.55	0.00	0.44	0.69
Western	0.65	0.50	0.19	2.29	0.94	0.62	0.75	1.20
Southern	0.52	0.28	0.16	1.70	0.68	0.03	0.49	0.96
South-eastern	0.58	0.36	0.18	1.87	1.00	0.99	0.78	1.30

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Use of Modern Spacing Contraceptives among tribal non-tribal married women in Rajasthan: Evidence from NFHS-5

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials and methods

Data

Final sample size

Measures

Dependent variable

Explanatory variable

Statistical analysis

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Tables

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1