Analysis of bituminous pavements with artificial and recycled aggregates on sustainable roads

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3403484/v1

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Analysis of bituminous pavements with artificial and recycled aggregates on sustainable roads

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3403484/v1

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This research carried out compares the behavior of traditional bituminous mixes with other sustainable mixes reusing recycled materials, waste or additives that improve mechanical or rheological characteristics. We have obtained the stresses and deformations in the pavement sections analyzed and the fatigue laws, determining the number of 13t axles that the material can support. For Heavy Vehicle (HV), with an Annual Average Daily Heavy Traffic (AADHT) of at least 800 HV by day (HV/d), the mixes investigated show a section durability loss of 12-15%, which can be considered acceptable. However, for minor traffic, for AADHT up to 25 HV/d, all the sustainable mixes tested improve the durability of the traditional mixes. However, for traffic below 25 HV/d, the data obtained do not recommend the use of sustainable materials in the case of a single pavement layer. As a wearing course, they can be laid in cycle paths or pedestrian areas.

Sustainable pavement

analytical dimensioning method

recycled addition

black slag

Recycled Asphalt Pavement RAP

recycled copper cable coating.

The Council of Europe plans recycling and waste management until 2035, mandating reuse and recycling rates for municipal waste of 55% by 2025, 60% by 2030 and 65% by 2035. The standard 6.1-IC Pavement sections (Spanish Road Instruction, 2010) establishes a catalogue of pavement sections based on the quality of the underlying road surface and the number of HV. The solutions proposed have been calculated using analytical methods and verified by experience. The General Specifications for Roads and Bridges Works, PG-3, in the 3rd Part Explanations, defines the types of bituminous mixture for each layer. It also defines the minimum binder content and the properties of aggregates, asphalt bitumen and finally bituminous mixtures. The OC 40/2017 on Recycling of bituminous pavements and pavements, including three types of action such as in situ recycling with emulsion of bituminous layers, in situ recycling with cement of pavement layers and finally hot and semi-hot recycling of bituminous layers in the plant. In the urban environment, the primary sources of non-traffic combustion PM microplastics emissions include those caused by tyre and brake wear as well as those released in the road surface (Monira et al., 2022). Particles from tyre and brake wear, due to their size of less than 10 µm, are very dangerous to human health. The non-destructive characterisation of construction and demolition waste CDW can be investigated using terahertz radiation (Abina et al., 2022). The spectral lines differentiate the different structures and chemical compositions of plastics and polymers in the frequency range of 1.0-4.5 THz, looking inside some of the non-conductive construction materials by combining terahertz imaging and spectroscopy. Also, the content of toxic and hazardous substances as well as unsuitable substances, which is important for the recycled material into fractions. This enables the design towards sustainable buildings with minimal demolition at the end of life. An analytical approach to the linear viscoelastic behaviour of high modulus bitumen macadam in flexible pavements by a moving load have been investigated (Nguyen et al., 2020).

The results have shown that the use of high modulus bitumen macadam layers reduces the traction and deformation at the pavement surface and at the bottom of the asphalt layer. The results of experimental tests have shown that the chemical composition, granulometric analysis, atomic absorption, spectrometry, calcium carbonate content, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), together with the physical and mechanical properties of the marble aggregate, densities, water absorption, sand equivalent, Los Angeles, Micro Deval, flakiness index and shape index, have made it possible to recommend its use as a conventional aggregate for road construction. The construction and maintenance of road pavements generate large amounts of waste on a continuous production basis (Nguyen et al., 2020). Life Cycle Assessment LCA modelling can provide interesting insights for advanced users, increasing the use of plastic recycles in asphalt concretes. An LCA case study investigated the environmental benefits of using plastic recycles instead of natural aggregates in the production of asphalt mixes. Santos et al investigate the modelling of LCA from the environmental consequences of the use of plastic recyclizes in bituminous concretes. Therefore, the Life Cycle Assessment study to quantify the environmental consequences of the use of recycled plastics in road surfacing applications should remove the constraints on the supply of recycled materials, avoiding increased demand in the construction industry for virgin plastics. Thus, optimal modelling should capture how the plastic material that will be used in future road pavements is currently produced and used. The polymeric material that is currently rejected at the waste treatment centre will be converted with this model into recycled material for road construction. The pellets are composed of plastic waste from the recycling of recycled polyethylene (RPE) from silo bags (RPE-SB) and RPE from plastic drums (RPE-PD), Teijón-López-Zuazo et al. have investigated the use of recycled aggregates from the exclusive crushing of structural concrete waste CDWCon and mixed ceramic materials CDWCer from selective demolition in road construction. The low values of the Los Angeles wear rate limit the use of these materials to sustainable road construction and other sites, such as urban roads, mountain roads or car parks, which have a low average heavy vehicle intensity. Soluble salt contents were detected, so additional waterproofing or drainage measures should be taken with CDWCer.

2.1. Materials

The wearing course bituminous mixtures investigated were made with natural aggregates and additives corresponding to sustainable by-products. Ophite was used as coarse aggregate and limestone as fine aggregate. Conventional asphalt bitumen and polymer-modified bitumen were used as the base binder. The conventional asphalt bitumen chosen was type B 50/70 according to the PG-3 designation. Its main characteristics are a penetration at 25ºC, UNE-EN 1426, between 50–70 tenths of a mm, a softening point, UNE-EN 1427, between 46–54ºC, a penetration index, UNE-EN 12591, of -1.5 to + 0.7, a Fraass brittle point, UNE-EN 12593, less than or equal to -8ºC and an elastic recovery at 25ºC, UNE-EN 13398, higher or equal to 70.

The materials and additives used were common salt, black slag, ash from thermal power plants, polymers from recycled packaging, plastic from recycled copper cable coating, synthetic wax, steel wool and finally rubber powder. The common salt corresponds to the crystallized mineral NaCl. It was added dry, at a dosage of 5% of the weight of the dry aggregate.

The black slag from electric arc furnace steelworks used in this research are obtained as residues from the steelmaking process in electric arc furnace steelworks. Black slag has been used in mixtures as a dry replacement of the coarse aggregate fraction.

Thermal power plant bottom ash is generated as solid waste during the combustion of coal in thermal power plants. It has been used in this research by replacing, by dry process, a percentage by weight of the mineral filler in the bituminous mix with thermal power plant bottom ash. Ecoembes plastic fibers are polymeric material from the recycling of light packaging in solid urban waste containers and subsequently processed in packaging plants.

Bituminous mixtures with the addition of polymeric fibers from copper cable recycling have also been investigated. The recycled polymeric fibers are obtained from the stripping of electrical cables for copper separation, 65% of the cable by weight. A percentage by volume of the asphalt bitumen mixture is replaced by plastic fibers from the stripping of copper cables.

Research has also been carried out on bituminous mixes with the addition of Recycled Asphalt Pavement RAP, which is material from the rehabilitation of pavement layers in bad condition. A percentage by weight of aggregate has been replaced by RAP in a dry process.

Another additive is the manufacture of bituminous mixtures with synthetic wax. Synthetic wax is added to bituminous bitumen by the wet process to reduce the manufacturing temperature and improve the aggregate-binder adhesiveness.

Another reused additive is steel wool, as a collection of fine steel fibers. It is added dry to improve the alligator crack resistance of the bituminous mix. It can be derived from the reutilization of dust from shredding of end-of-life tyres, added to the mix as an additive to bitumen to reduce its manufacturing temperature and improve the rheology of the binder.

2.2. Methodology

The investigation was developed for flexible pavements and different AADTH. Only subgrades with a modulus of compressibility in the second loading cycle Ev₂ higher or equal to 120 MPa have been considered. This research has been carried out with PA 16 porous asphalt, which is a discontinuous mixture for drainage and an AC16 surf S, which is a semi-dense mixture, both with a maximum size of 16 mm and designed for wearing courses, UNE-EN 13108-1. In the intermediate layer, AC 22 bin S is located. The asphalt concrete types of AC 32 base G and AC 22 base S MAM have been used in the base layer. The subgrades considered are E3, for high categories of heavy traffic, and E2 for the rest.

The layer types and thicknesses defined for the different pavement sections investigated were:

0031: PA 16 4cm, AC22 binS 10cm, AC 22 base S MAM 14cm, ZA0/32 25cm; Total 53cm.
031: PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 7cm, AC 22 base S MAM 13cm, ZA 0/32 25cm; Total 49cm.
121: PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 7cm, AC 22 base S MAM 13cm, ZA 0/32 25cm; Total 49cm.
121: PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 7cm, AC 22 base S MAM 13cm, ZA 0/32 25cm; Total 49cm.
221 (PA): PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 9cm, AC 32 base G 12cm, ZA 0/32 25cm; Total 50cm.
221 (AC): PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 5cm, AC 32 base G 7cm, ZA 0/32 40cm; Total 50cm.
3121 (PA): PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 5cm, AC 32 base G 7cm, ZA 0/32 40cm; Total 56cm.
3121 (PA): PA 16 4cm, AC 22 bin S 5cm, AC 32 base G 7cm, ZA 0/32 40cm; Total 56cm.
Section 3221: AC 16 surf S 5cm, AC 22 bin S 10cm, ZA 0/32 35cm; Total 50cm.
Section 4221: AC 16 surf S 5cm, ZA 0/32 25cm; Total 30cm.

According to 6.1-IC, section 0031 is designed for AADHT higher than 4 000 HV/d, section 031 higher than 2 000 HV/d, section 121 higher than 800 HV/d, section 221 higher than 200 HV/d, section 3121 higher than 100 HV/d, section 3221 higher than 50 HV/d and finally section 4221 higher than 25 HV/d. In each of the sections 221 and 3121 two different options have been considered depending if the wearing course is a porous asphalt 3121 (PA) or a conventional asphalt concrete 3121 (AC). Sections 0031 and 031are formed by subgrades with a modulus of compressibility Ev₂ higher or equal to 300 MPa. In the sections with a high modulus bitumen macadam in base layer, AC 22 base S MAM, a reduction of 20% has been applied on the theoretical section of 35 cm, reducing at the final in 28 cm of bituminous mixture.

The modulus of elasticity and Poisson coefficients, UNE-EN 12697-26:2019, and fatigue laws were determined for the PA 16 sustainable asphaltic mixtures, with addition. For the reference, PA 16 without addition, the values were the proposed by the 6.1-IC, Table 1.

Table 1

Parameters
Addiction (% of aggregates)	Resilient modulus (MPa)	Poisson coefficient	Fatigue law
PA 16 Reference	4 000.00	0.35	\(\epsilon ={6.925 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.2743}\)
PA 16 + Common salt (5.0%)	2 286.00	0.35	\(\epsilon ={0.026 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1751}\)
PA 16 + Black slag (88.0%)	1 906.00	0.35	\(\epsilon ={3.951 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.2299}\)
PA 16 Reference	7 000	0.33	\(\epsilon ={6.925 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.2743}\)
PA 16 + Thermal power plant bottom ash (70% over filler)	6 632	0.33	\(\epsilon ={0.945 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.25}\)
PA 16 + Ecoembes plastic fibres	6 846	0.33	\(\epsilon ={1.400 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1903}\)
PA 16 + Polymeric fibres from copper cable recycling	7 113	0.33	\(\epsilon ={1.338 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1935}\)
PA 16 + Black slag (60.0%), limestone sand (18.5%) and RAP (21.5%)	6 166	0.33	\(\epsilon ={1.374 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1653}\)
PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%), furnace sand (12.1%) and RAP (35.5%)	6 912	0.33	\(\epsilon ={1.338 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1631}\)
PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%), limestone sand (16.5%) and RAP (13.5%)	7 528	0.33	\(\epsilon ={1.889 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1754}\)
PA 16 + Steel wool (1.0%)	6 373	0.33	\(\epsilon =1.309{ 10 }^{-3} {N}^{-0.1693}\)
AC22 bin S MAM	11 000.00	0.33	\(\epsilon ={\text{6,617}10 }^{-3}{N}^{-\text{0,2743}}\)
ZA 0/32	300.00	0.33	\(\epsilon ={\text{2,160}10 }^{-3}{N}^{-\text{0,2800}}\)
Upgrade	300.00	0.33	\(\epsilon ={\text{1,580}10 }^{-2}{N}^{-\text{0,2500}}\)

The modulus of elasticity and Poisson coefficients, UNE-EN 12697-26:2019, and fatigue laws were determined for the AC16 surf S sustainable asphaltic mixtures, with addition. For the reference bituminous concrete, AC16 surf S without addition, the values were the of the 6.1-IC.

For the rest as high modulus bitumen macadam, AC22 bin S MAM, or wet mix macadam, ZA 0/32, the complementary specifications expressed in 6.1-IC. A usual value in upgrade have been considered. In all cases, a Poisson ratio of 0.35 is considered for the semi-indefinite mass. We have estimated the stresses and deformations of the pavement, subsequently comparing the results with standard values that indicate the failure criterion. The calculation program used is Alizé, version 1.3.0. The calculation was carried out according to Kraemer method with a dual-wheel axle with a radius of effect of 11.35 cm, a pressure of 0.8 MPa and a dual-wheel spacing of 37.5 cm. With the analytical calculation of stresses and strains, we have obtained the number of axes N in each layer based on the fatigue laws defined above.

With the calculated stresses and strains, the fatigue laws have been applied to obtain the durability cycles in section layers. The duration for N load cycles of the different sections investigated are shown in Table 2. The cycles supported for a conventional wearing course, PA 16 or AC 16 surf S and those obtained with alternative wearing courses are shown. The alternatives asphalt concretes have been additions to the bituminous mixture of by-products.

Table 2

Durability of pavement sections for different PA 16 wearing courses
Section	Wearing course	Failure layer		N axles (10⁵)
0031	(PA 16-4cm) (Reference)	AC 22 base S MAM		274.4
0031	(PA 16-4cm) + Common salt	AC 22 base S MAM		242.2
0031	(PA 16-4cm) + Black slag	AC 22 base S MAM		233.9
031	(PA 16-4cm) (Reference)	AC 22 base S MAM		124.5
031	(PA 16-4cm) + Common salt	AC 22 base S MAM		107.4
031	(PA 16-4cm) + Black slag	AC 22 base S MAM		103.4
121	(PA 16-4cm) (Reference)	AC 22 base S MAM		71.2
121	(PA 16-4cm) + Common salt	AC 22 base S MAM		60.7
121	(PA 16-4cm) + Black slag	AC 22 base S MAM		58.4
221 (PA)	(PA 16-4cm) (Reference)	AC 32 base G		39.2
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash	AC 32 base G		47.0
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres	AC 32 base G		47.5
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Polymeric fibres of copper cable recycling	AC 32 base G		48.2
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)	AC 32 base G		45.7
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)	AC 32 base G		47.7
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)	AC 32 base G		49.2
221	(AC 16-4cm) + Steel wool	AC 32 base G		46.2
3121 (PA)	(PA 16-4cm) (Reference)	AC 32 base G		5.7
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash	AC 32 base G		6.9
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres	AC 32 base G		6.9
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Polymeric fibres copper cable recycling	AC 32 base G		7.0
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)	AC 32 base G		6.7
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)	AC 32 base G		7.0
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)	AC 32 base G		7.2
3121	(AC 16-4cm) + Steel wool	AC 32 base G		6.8
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) (Reference)		AC 32 base G	45.2
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash		AC 32 base G	46.8
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres		AC 32 base G	47.5
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Polymeric fibres of copper cable recycling		AC 32 base G	48.2
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)		AC 32 base G	45.4
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)		AC 32 base G	47.7
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)		AC 32 base G	49.4
221 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Steel wool		AC 32 base G	46.0
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) (Reference)		AC 22 bin S	6.6
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash		AC 22 bin S	6.8
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres		AC 22 bin S	6.9
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Polymeric fibres of copper cable recycling		AC 22 bin S	7.1
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)		AC 22 bin S	6.6
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)		AC 22 bin S	7.0
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)		AC 22 bin S	7.2
3121 (AC)	(AC 16 surf S-6cm) + Steel wool		AC 22 bin S	6.7
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) (Reference)		AC 22 bin S	4.7
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash		AC 22 bin S	4.9
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres		AC 22 bin S	5.0
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Polymeric fibres of copper cable recycling		AC 22 bin S	5.0
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)		AC 22 bin S	4.8
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)		AC 22 bin S	5.0
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)		AC 22 bin S	5.2
3221	(AC 16 surf S-5cm) + Steel wool		AC 22 bin S	4.8
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) (Reference)		AC 22 bin S	1.0
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Thermal power plant bottom ash		AC 22 bin S	1.0
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Ecoembes plastic fibres		AC 22 bin S	1.1
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Polymeric fibres of copper cable recycling		AC 22 bin S	1.1
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%)		AC 22 bin S	1.0
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%)		AC 22 bin S	1.1
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%)		AC 22 bin S	1.1
4121	(AC 16 surf S-4cm) + Steel wool		AC 22 bin S	1.0

In section 0031, the highest number of equivalent axles, 27.4 10⁶, is obtained with the PA 16 porous asphalt in the wearing course. In sustainable asphalt concretes consisting of PA 16 with common salt additive or black slag, a reduction in pavement service life of 11.7% and 14.8% respectively is observed. The section failure has occurred in the AC 22 base S MAM.

For pavement section 031, the highest number of equivalent axles, 12.5 10⁶, is obtained with the PA 16 porous asphalt in the wearing course. In the case of PA 16 with common salt additive or black slag, a reduction in pavement service life of 13.7% and 16.9% respectively is observed. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, AC 22 base S MAM.

In section 121, the highest number of equivalent axles, 7.1 10⁶, is obtained with the PA 16 porous asphalt in the wearing course. In the case of sustainable asphalt concretes consisting of PA 16 with common salt additive or black slag, a reduction in pavement service life of 14.7% and 18.5% respectively is observed. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, which is a high modulus bitumen macadam AC 22 base S MAM.

For pavement section 221 with PA 16 porous asphalt, 221 (PA), Fig. 1, for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life was obtained with sustainable asphalt mixes. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, AC 32 base G.

Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the porous asphalt PA 16, between 16.4% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 25.5% in bituminous mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 221 (PA), the comparison between PA 16 and PA 16 + addition is:

For PA 16 + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 19.8%
For PA 16 + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 21.1%
For PA 16 + Polymeric fibers from copper cable recycling, an increase of 22.2%
For PA 16 + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 16.4%
For PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 21.5%
For PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 25.5%
For PA 16 + steel wool, an increase in service life of 17.7%

In section 221 with AC 16 surf S asphalt concrete, 221 (AC), Fig. 2, for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life was obtained with sustainable asphalt mixes. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, AC 32 base G.

Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the bituminous mixture AC 16 surf S, between 0.4% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 9.3% in bituminous mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 221 (AC), the comparison between AC 16 surf S and AC 16 surf S + addition is:

For AC 16 surf S + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 3.6%
For AC 16 surf S + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 5.1%
For AC 16 surf S + Fibers from copper cable recycling, an increase in service life of 6.6%
For AC 16 surf S + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 0.4%
For AC 16 surf S + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 5.5%
For AC 16 surf S + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 9.3%
For AC 16 surf S + Steel wool, an increase in service life compared to AC 16 surf S of 1.8%

In the case of pavement section 3121 with PA 16 porous asphalt, 3121 (PA), for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life of the pavement was obtained with sustainable asphalt mixes. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course.

Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the porous asphalt PA 16, between 16.5% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 25.7% in bituminous mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 3121 (PA), the comparison between PA 16 and sustainable (PA 16 + addition) is:

For PA 16 + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 20.0%
For PA 16 + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 21.3%
For PA 16 + Polymeric fibers from cable recycling, an increase in service life of 23.1%
For PA 16 + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 16.5%
For PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 21.8%
For PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 25.7%
For PA 16 + Steel wool, an increase in service life compared to PA 16 of 18.3%

For pavement section 3121 with AC 16 surf S asphalt concrete, 3121 (AC), Fig. 3, for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life of the pavement was obtained with sustainable asphalt mixes. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, which is a bituminous mixture AC 22 bin S.

Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the bituminous mixture AC 16 surf S, between 0.0% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 9.5% in bituminous mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 3121 (AC), the comparison between AC 16 surf S and AC 16 surf S + addition is:

For AC 16 surf S + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 3.6%
For AC 16 surf S + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 5.2%
For AC 16 surf S + Fibers from copper cable recycling, an increase in service life of 6.9%
For PA 16 + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 0.0%
For PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 5.6%
For PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 9.5%
For PA 16 + Steel wool, an increase in service life compared to PA 16 of 1.7%

In the case of pavement section 3221 with AC 16 surf S asphalt concrete, Fig. 4, for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life of the pavement was obtained. In all cases, the section failure has occurred in the base course, which is a mixture AC 22 bin S.

Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the bituminous mixture AC 16 surf S, between 0.4% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 8.8% in bituminous mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 3221, the comparison between AC 16 surf S and AC 16 surf S + addition is:

For AC 16 surf S + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 3.3%
For AC 16 surf S + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 4.7%
For AC 16 surf S + Fibers from copper cable recycling, an increase in service life of 6.3%
For PA 16 + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 0.4%
For PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 5.1%
For PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 8.8%
For PA 16 + Steel wool, an increase in service life compared to PA 16 of 1.7%

In section 4121 with AC 16 surf S asphalt concrete, for all the wearing courses investigated, an improvement in the service life of the pavement was obtained with sustainable asphalt mixes. The section failure has occurred in the base course, AC 22 bin S. Different percentages of improvement have been obtained compared to the AC 16 surf S, between 0.1% of the asphalt concrete with addition of Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%) and 6.1% in mixture with addition of Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%). So, in section 4121, the comparison is:

For AC 16 surf S + Thermal power plant bottom ash, an increase in service life of 2.3%
For AC 16 surf S + Ecoembes plastic fibers, an increase in service life of 3.3%
For AC 16 surf S + Fibers from copper cable recycling, an increase in service life of 4.5%
For PA 16 + Black slag (60%) + RAP (21.5%), an increase in service life of 0.1%
For PA 16 + Black slag (50.5%) + RAP (35.5%), an increase in service life of 3.6%
For PA 16 + Black slag (70.0%) + RAP (13.5%), an increase in service life of 6.6%
For PA 16 + Steel wool, an increase in service life compared to PA 16 of 1.1%

In this paper, we have investigated the service life of different pavement sections with sustainable asphalt mixes, using recycled material additions in the wearing course. Based on the mechanical characterisation, the analytical calculation of the sections has been carried out, defining the useful life of the sustainable pavements, obtaining a greater development of the circular economy.

The fundings are as follows:

For Annual Average Daily Heavy Traffic (AADHT) of at least 800 HV by day (HV/d), we have obtained valid results for the use of sustainable mixes in wearing courses. However, as the additions have not improved the service life of the investigated sections, the benefits of sustainable bituminous mixtures should be considered in the sense of the transformation of the construction industry in the context of the Circular Economy.
In sections for AADTH between 800 and 25 HV/d, 221(PA), 221(AC), 3121(PA), 3121(AC), 3221 and 4121, all the bituminous mixes with additions that we have analysed extend the service life of the road, transforming the pavement sections with a maximum circularity criterion. In this case, the best results we have obtained have been in the asphalt concretes that replaced part of the natural aggregate with electric arc furnace blag slag (60% by mass) and RAP (21.5% by mass), using polymer-modified bitumen improved using rubber powder from end-of-life tyre shredding.
Overall, in the research, we have obtained an improvement in the fatigue

Conflict of interest The authors have not disclosed any conflict of interest.

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Authors and Affiliations

Evelio Teijón-López-Zuazo¹, Ángel Vega-Zamanillo², Cristina Calmeiro dos Santos³, David Gómez-Carrascal²

Evelio Teijón-López-Zuazo

[email protected]

Ángel Vega-Zamanillo

[email protected]

Cristina Calmeiro dos Santos

[email protected]

David Gómez-Carrascal

^aUniversity of Salamanca, Zamora Polytechnical School, Spain;

b University of Cantabria, Civil Engineering Technical School of Santander, Spain

^cPolytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal.

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No competing interests reported.

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Graphical Abstract Shows the advantages obtained in fatigue tests performed on sustainable asphalt mixtures.

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Analysis of bituminous pavements with artificial and recycled aggregates on sustainable roads

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