Cytological Effects of Herbicidal and Fungicidal Pesticides on Root Apex Meristem Cells of Triticum Aestivum

Using the example of 2-day-old Triticum aestivum seedlings, grown in hydroponic culture, the cytological effects of pesticides with various mechanisms of the damaging were studied: the herbicides metribuzin, tribenuron-methyl, fenoxaprop-P-ethyl and the fungicides tebuconazole, epoxiconazole, and azoxystrobin. All pesticides showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the development of the roots of Triticum aestivum, but did not affect the mitotic activity and did not reduce the mitotic index of root apex meristem cells. Herbicides and fungicides affected the duration of metaphase, anophase, prophase, and cytokinesis activity in the root apex meristem of the wheat, and these changes were specic for the six studied preparations. Under the inuence of all pesticides, the number of abnormal cells increased signicantly, to the greatest extent (10–12 times compared with control - distilled water) under the inuence of herbicides tribenuron-methyl and phenoxaprop-ethyl and fungicides azoxystrobin and epoxiconazole; to a lesser extent - under the inuence of metribuzin and tebuconazole (6–7 times). For all studied pesticides the manifestation of cyto- and genotoxicity, including both clastogenic and aneugenic effects, was revealed in relation to the non-target plant Triticum aestivum. Under the inuence of pesticides, structural anomalies, caused by chromosome breakdown (bridges, fragments, micronuclei) and spindle damage (lagging chromosomes and their fragments, uneven chromosome separation) were detected in the cells of the Triticum aestivum root apex meristem. The work is devoted to the study of the cyto- and genotoxicity of herbicidal and fungicidal pesticides to a non-target higher plant. Object of study -samples of 2-day-old Triticum aestivum seedlings, grown in hydroponic culture.


Background
Intensive farming technologies require the use of a huge variety of chemicals to control pests, weeds and pathogens of cultivated species. In this case, no more than 10% of applied and introduced into the environment pesticides reaches the goal; most of these substances accumulate in biological objects, pollute soils, water bodies, cause the death of bene cial organisms and upset the balance in natural ecosystems. Pesticides are the most dangerous product of human civilization, causing multiple damage to bene cial biota and threatening human health. The use of pesticides for processing crops leads to the inclusion of pesticides in the food chain, which determines the high risk of these pollutants for ecosystems in general, as well as for human health. Pesticides have reproductive toxicity [1,2], teratogenic activity [3,4,5], are endocrine disruptors [1,6], reduce the activity of humoral immunity [7], have epigenetic activity [8,9]. Long-term direct contacts with pesticides of people, working in agriculture, signi cantly increase the risk of developing cancer, diseases of the immune and nervous systems [10,11,12]. This determines the relevance of the study of the damaging properties of pesticides, due to their manifestations of mutagenic, carcinogenic and many other negative effects, that pose a danger to biota and human health. Moreover, due to the huge variety of pesticides, used in agriculture, the available literature data on the genotoxicity of chemical plant protection products are far from an exhaustive picture.
The widespread use of pesticides also potentially poses a threat to economically important crops due to cytological damage to plants and a number of side effects [13]. Systemic herbicides not only cause plant death, but also exhibit a chronic toxic effect, exerting a versatile effect on important vital processes: cell division, tissue development, chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthesis and respiration. The mechanism of action of herbicides is based on their diversi ed in uence on the growth and development of the whole plant, its individual organs, tissues and cells, on cell organelles, physiological and biochemical processes.
Approximately 25% of all sold herbicides are genotoxic to plants and belong to the group of herbicides with mitotic disorders [14,15]. This determines the relevance of studying of the biological activity of herbicides, in particular their cyto-and genotoxicity against weeds, as well as non-target higher plants.
Pesticides have selective and targeted activity against mycopathogens and crop weeds. However, the selectivity of pesticide activity is not absolute: the evolutionary conservatism of many molecular-cellular events determines the activity of pesticides with respect to non-target organisms [16,17,18,19,20,21,22]. In this regard, cytogenetic studies of pesticides with respect to cereal crops, which are the main source in the nutritional structure of the world's population, are very important. It is known, that a number of pesticides to one degree or another induce genetic disorders of these valuable crops.
For example, the systemic fungicide Tricyclazole, used on irrigated rice crops, has genotoxic activity: increases the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities [23]. The systemic herbicide Roundup, used to control weeds in cereal crops, increases the number of metaphase disorders in barley, which is due to the negative effect on the mitotic spindle formation [24].
The negative effects of pesticides on wheat are described in a number of publications. This refers to chlorpropham [25]; imazethapyr [26,27]; butachlor [13]; 2,4-D-isoproturon [14,28] and others. In these studies, performed on the apical root meristem of wheat seedlings, the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of these pesticides were identi ed. However, these fragmentary data do not allow a qualitative picture of the cytogenetic effects of pesticides with a different mechanism of action for wheat, as well as other crops, to be obtained.
This determined the purpose of this work -to study the cyto-and genotoxicity of herbicidal and fungicidal pesticides with a different mechanism of action in relation to a non-target higher plant -wheat, Triticum aestivum.

Results
The cytogenotoxicity of herbicides and fungicides, differing in the mechanism of action towards biological objects [29], was investigated. The fungicides epoxiconazole (EPO) and tebuconazole (TEB) (fungicides of the triazole group) disrupt the synthesis of sterols, inhibiting demethylation at position C-14. The fungicide azoxystrobin (AZO) (a group of strobilurins) inhibits mitochondrial respiration, disrupting the processes of electron transport in the chain of cytochromes b and c 1 .
The herbicide metribuzin (MET) (a group of triazines) reduces photosynthesis activity, inhibiting the Hill reaction (water photolysis) and photosynthetic electron transfer between the primary and secondary electron acceptor of photosystem II. The Tribenuron-methyl (TBM) (sulfonylurea group) inhibits acetolactate synthase, disrupting the synthesis of amino acids and proteins. The fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (FEN) hydrolysis products inhibit the key fatty acid synthesis enzyme, acetyl-CoA-carboxylase, which leads to disruption of the biogenesis of cell membranes.
A common feature of the studied pesticides is the presence of planar cyclic structures in the molecule with a double bond system (Table 2), which determines the ability of pesticides to participate in π-πstacking interactions. Stacking interactions, non-covalent interactions, arise between plane-parallel structures and play an important role in the stabilization of bioorganic molecules. In DNA stacking interactions between parallel nitrogenous bases make a signi cant contribution to the stabilization of the double helix. In proteins stacking interactions between aromatic amino acid residues also play an important role in maintaining the stability of their 3D structure. The ability of pesticide molecules to participate in the formation of stacking interactions implies their ability to form protein adducts and DNA adducts, and, as a result, to exhibit cyto-and genotoxicity [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37].
2.1. The in uence of pesticides to the formation of roots of seedlings of Triticum aestivum The classic bioanalysis, used to determine the amount of pesticides in the soil, uses a single "standard" dose-response curve. This standard curve shows the plant's response to various concentrations of pesticides and provides information on various concepts, related to their effectiveness. A typical doseresponse curve has a sigmoid shape; one example of such a curve is a logistic curve [38].
The introduction into the culture medium of the studied pesticides in concentrations of 0.01; 0.10 and 1.00 µg/mL, did not affect the activity of germination of the grains. At a concentration of 1 µg/mL, a signi cant inhibition of the growth of the roots of wheat seedlings occurred when 3 fungicides were added (Fig. 1a). Inhibition of root growth by pesticides was also accompanied by a dose-dependent decrease in their biomass (Fig. 1b). Among fungicides, the inhibition effect was more pronounced for AZO, under the action of which the absolutely dry root biomass was 2.5 times lower than under the action of TEB and EPO. This is almost 4 times lower than the root biomass in the control (distilled water, no pesticide in the medium).
Under the action of the herbicides TBM and FEN at a concentration of 1 µg/ml, a pronounced inhibition of root growth and a decrease in their biomass were also observed (1.7 times and 2 times, respectively, compared with the control variant) (Fig. 1c, d). MET in the studied concentrations did not signi cantly affect the root growth of 2-day-old seedlings ( Fig. 1c, d).
In the early stages of seedling development, root growth in length is provided by cell elongation. In this regard, the observed inhibition of root growth on media with pesticides can be associated with a disruption in the processes of biogenesis of cell walls, and, as a result, with a blocking of the processes of cell elongation. It is known, that pesticides can inhibit cellulose synthesis. Inhibition of cellulose synthesis leads to remodeling of cell walls (reducing their thickness, changes in chemical composition and changed the distribution of cellulose micro brils) and disruption of cell elongation processes [39,40,41].
Thus, with the exception of metribuzin, inhibition of wheat root growth occurred under the in uence of all studied herbicides and fungicides, starting from a concentration of 0.10 µg / mL. At the same time, pronounced changes were recorded at drug concentration of 1.00 µg / mL, which was used for further research.
2.2. The effect of pesticides to the mitotic index of Triticum aestivum root apex meristem cells.
The mitotic index (MI), which is characterized by the total number of dividing cells in the cell cycle [42], serves as a parameter for assessing of the level of cytotoxicity for various chemical agents, including pesticides. The level ofagent cytotoxicity can be determined by an increase or decrease in MI. If MI is signi cantly lower, than the negative control, then this indicates changes, resulting from chemical effects on the growth and development of the organisms exposed. On the other hand, a MI higher than the negative control, is the result of increased cell division, which can be harmful to cells also, leading to impaired cell proliferation and even to the formation of tumor tissues [43].
The studied pesticides (in concentration in the medium 1.0 µg/mL) had practically no effect on the MI of the root apex meristem of 2-day-old wheat seedlings (Fig. 2). Therefore, pesticides under the experimental conditions during the study did not exhibit cytotoxicity towards the root apex meristem of 2-day-old wheat seedlings. As noted above, in the early stages of seedling development (2-3 days), the length of the root increases mainly due to the extension of the cell wall and increasing in cell size, while the number of cells does not change, in contrast to later dates. This, in our opinion, is the reason for the absence of a change in the value of MI.
The ambiguity of the experimental data suggests that the cytotoxicity of pesticides depends not only on the dose, processing time, chemical class, but also on the biological characteristics of the test systems: a low basal level of proliferative activity does not reveal a signi cant decrease in MI under the in uence of pesticides, while in actively proliferating systems the cytotoxic effects of pesticides are more pronounced.

The effect of pesticides to the duration of cell division phases in Triticum aestivum meristem cells.
Herbicides are known to act as mitotic poisons by blocking mitosis in meristems. The plants treated with herbicides causing disruption of cell division have mitotic stages present, but sometimes one or more stages, that are normally present, will be absent or aberrant. The inhibition of cell division is a secondary effect caused by the disturbance of a plant's metabolic process [44].
The studied pesticides had different effects on the duration of metaphase, anaphase, and cytokinesis activity (number of cells in one or another phase of mitosis) in the root apex meristem of Triticum aestivum (Fig. 3a, b). So, the fungicide AZO led to an increase in the duration of the metaphase: the number of cells in the metaphase was 1.8 times greater than in the control version. A delay in the division processes at the metaphase stage led to a sharp decrease in the relative number of cells at the telophase stage (Fig. 3a). The fungicide TEB reduced the number of cells at the metaphase stage by 1.6 times, compared with the control. This is probably due to an increase in the duration of prophase, for which a tendency toward an increase in the number of cells was recorded.
The studied herbicides did not affect the duration of prophase; the number of cells in this phase of mitosis did not signi cantly differ from the control variant. But, at the same time, changes in the duration of other phases of mitosis were observed. Thus, MET reduced the number of cells in metaphase by 1.6 times, compared with the control (Fig. 3b). A decrease in the duration of metaphase was accompanied by an increase in the number of cells at the anaphase stage (1.8 times) and cytokinesis (2 times), compared with the control.
It should be noted, that a characteristic feature of herbicides (in contrast to fungicides) was an increase in the number of cells at the stage of cytokinesis (stage with an incompletely formed intermediate plate, a new cell wall between two daughter cells) (Fig. 3b). For MET, TBM, and FEN, the number of cells at the stage of cytokinesis was 2.0, 3.4 and 3.0 times, respectively, more, than in the control. An increase in the duration of cytokinesis may be associated with herbicide-induced disturbances in cell wall biogenesis.
The toxic effect of pesticides, estimated by the number of abnormal cells, manifested itself in different ways.In the control (germination without herbicides), the number of cells with mitosis abnormalities было (0.68%). The numberof cells with abnormalities increased signi cantly under the in uence of all three herbicides: to 5.43% for MET; and to 8.54 and 9.18%, respectively, for FEN and TBM (Table 1).
A common feature of the action of fungicides was also a signi cant increase in the number of cells with various mitosis anomalies in the population of proliferating cells of the wheat root apex meristem (Table 1). Moreover, for TEB, the total number of cells with anomalies was almost 2 times less than for AZO and EPO.
In experimental variants with AZO and EPO, the number of cells with anaphase-telophase anomalies (8.92% and 8.74%, respectively) was signi cantly higher, than for TEB (4.61%). This suggests a most pronounced effects of azostrobin and epoxypron.

The effect of pesticides on chromosomal abnormalities of Triticum aestivum root apex meristem cells
The results of the revealed chromosomal abnormalities and DNA damage in the meristem cells of the root apex of wheat seedlings during cultivation in a hydroponic culture on media with herbicides are presented in Fig. 4 and Table 2. The criteria for mitosis disorders under the in uence of mutagens are aberrations: chromatid type, when the chromosome is doubled (single fragments, single bridges) and the chromosomal type, when the chromosome is not doubled (double fragments, double bridges).
In the course of studies structural anomalies were identi ed in root apex meristem cells: a) caused by chromosome breaks (bridges, fragments, micronuclei), clastogenic effects; b) caused by damage of the mitotic spindle (lagging chromosomes and their fragments, uneven chromosome separation), aneugenic effects.
It should be noted, that for each fungicide and herbicide, a speci c percentage of cells with various anomalies was formed (Table 1). Presumably, the spectrum of cyto-and genotoxic anomalies is determined by the peculiarities of the chemical structure of pesticide molecules and the relatively selective their interaction with speci c molecular targets in plant cell. Among the studied pesticides the fungicide TEB and the herbicide MET had the most pronounced effect on the formation of lagging chromosomes: 0.77 and 1.02% of cells with this damage (Table 1; Fig. 4a, b). Table 1 The number of cells with chromosomal abnormalities and DNA damage in the root apex meristem 2-dayold seedlings of Triticum aestivum when cultured on pesticide media (1.0 µg/mL).

Experiment aloptions
The  Fig. 4c) and disruption of the processes of divergence of chromosomes to the poles of a dividing cell can be associated with the formation of disul de bridges or non-covalent bonds between non-histone chromosome proteins. Among the studied pesticides, the fungicides AZO and EPO and the herbicide FEN had the most pronounced effect on the separation of chromosomes (Fig. 4c): the sticking of chromosomes for these pesticides was the main class of cell division anomalies, from 4.83 to 6.59% (Table 1).
The formation of anaphase bridges is associated with the appearance of dicentric chromosomes. In the root apical meristem the number of cells with dicentric chromosomes was the highest when cultured on media with herbicides, MET and TBM (Figure 4g; Table 1).
Chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei ( Fig. 4d -k, l) are the result of double-stranded DNA breaks. Micronuclei are small, surrounded by their own membrane structures, containing fragments of chromosomes, or acentric chromosomes, that were not included in the nucleus of daughter cells in the process of cell division. No micronuclei were detected under the in uence of MET and AZO; however, in the case of TBM and FEN, the amount was 0.41 and 0.54%, respectively; under the in uence of fungicide EPO this value was maximal (0.92%) ( Table 1).
The main class of aberrations, that were observed in the cells of the apical meristem of wheat, when cultured on pesticidal media, are small fragments of chromosomes, that retained their connection with chromatids ( Fig. 4e, g). The highest number of cells with chromosomal aberrations was observed during the cultivation of grains on media with the herbicide TBM. This determines the highest level of genotoxicity (the highest activity of the formation of double-stranded breaks in DNA) for this pesticide.

Discussion
The work is devoted to the study of the cyto-and genotoxicity of herbicidal and fungicidal pesticides to a non-target higher plant. Object of study -samples of 2-day-old Triticum aestivum seedlings, grown in hydroponic culture.
Pesticides are the most dangerous products of the technosphere. At the same time, modern agriculture cannot be imagined without their application. Intensive farming involves the use of enormous amounts of various pesticides to control weeds, pests, and patho-gens of crops. However, most of these substances are accumulated in biological objects, contaminate soil and water environments, harm living organisms and up-set the balance in natural ecosystems.
Systemic herbicides not only cause plant death, but also exhibit a chronic toxic effect, exerting a versatile effect on important vital processes: cell division, tissue development, chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthesis and respiration. The pesticides with a different mechanism of action in relation were studied: the herbicides metribuzin (MET), tribenuron-methyl (TBM), fenoxaprop-P-ethyl (FEN) and the fungicides tebuconazole (TEB), epoxiconazole (EPO), and azoxystrobin (AZO). Markers of cytotoxicity were the mitotic index and anaphase-telophase anomalies; genotoxicity -chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei.
When studying the effect of pesticides of various concentrations on the growth of wheat roots, it turned out, that with the exception of metribuzin, all fungicides and herbicides signi cantly inhibited root growth, starting from a concentration of 0.10 µg / mL.It should be noted, that the analysis of literature data on the effect of pesticides on the cytogenetic rearrangements of higher plants, showed a huge (by orders of magnitude) spread of data on the studied concentrations from very high: 0.5-2.0 mg/mL [20] and 5.0-15.0 mg/ml [45] to very low: 0.002-0.4 µg/mL [46]. The authors of the works did not motivate the choice of concentrations, but noted the cytotoxic effects of pesticides, which were detected for both, high and low concentrations.
The mitotic index (MI), which is characterized by the total number of dividing cells in the cell cycle, serves as a parameter for assessing of the level of cytotoxicity for various chemical agents, including pesticides. The studied pesticides had practically no effect on the MI of the root apex meristem of 2-day-old wheat seedlings. A similar lack of cytotoxic effect of the tricyclazole fungicide tricyclazole used in rice cultivation is described by Wandscheer et al. [23]. Using the Allium cepa test, the authors showed, that tricyclazole causes chromosomal abnormalities, but does not signi cantly affect the MI. In a research of Mahapatra et al. [20] examined the cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and prooxidant activity of herbicides at a concentration of 0.5 to 2.0 mg/mL in fenugreek culture. A high yield of cells with various chromosomal abnormalities was found under the in uence of all, including low, concentrations of herbicides. However, herbicides did not affect the MI, which changed only slightly for the highest concentration (2.0 mg/mL). The absence of a decrease in the MI was described by Akhter et al. [47], when studying the cytological effects of herbicides on hexaploid wheat Triticum aestivum L. At the same time, a number of studies showed, that individual pesticides in high concentrations negatively affect MI. So, in the Allium cepa test herbicides quizalofop-p-ethylandcycloxydimin concentrations 0.5, 1.0% and 1.5%, showed a strong cytotoxic effects. For 1.5% quisalofop-p-ethyl MI decreased from 30.2% (control) to 9.6% [45]. Roundup (glyphosate herbicide) reduced MI in the root meristem of barley seedlings: depending on the dose of the preparation (from 0.36 to 7.2 mg/ml) and the treatment time (3 h and 6 h), MI decreased by 3-5 times [24]. In the root meristem of wheat, a dose-dependent decrease MI was revealed under the in uence of the herbicides chlorpropham and imazethapyr [25,26]; 2.4-D-isoproturon [28]; butachlor [13]. Herbicide dithiopyr caused a cessation of root elongation results in swelling of root tips in wheat, MI decreased as the concentration of the herbicide increased and mitotic cells were arrested in late prometaphase [48]. The MI reduction effect was recorded on germinated corn grains, that were treated with Royal Flo fungicide in various concentrations for 20, 24, and 48 hours [49].
Herbicides are known to act as mitotic poisons by blocking mitosis in meristems. The inhibition of cell division is a secondary effect caused by the disturbance of a plant's metabolic process [44]. The studied pesticides had different effects on the duration of metaphase, anaphase, and cytokinesis activity (number of cells in one or another phase of mitosis) in the root apex meristem of Triticum aestivum. So, the fungicide AZO enlarged metaphase period and amount of cells initin 1.8 times compared with the control samples. On thecontrary, the fungicide tebuconazole reduced the number of cells at the metaphase stage by 1.6 times, compared with the control. A characteristic feature of herbicides was an increase in the number of cells at the stage of cytokinesis (stage with an incompletely formed intermediate plate, a new cell wall between two daughter cells) from 2.0 to 3.4 times, respectively, more, than in the control. The effect of pesticides on the duration of various phases of mitosis may be due to the epigenetic activity of pesticides. It has been demonstrated, that pesticides can affect the activity of methylases and rearrange gene expression patterns [9,50]. It could be possible, that epigenetic rearrangements, induced by pesticides, lead to alterationsof proliferative signaling and to a change in the activity of molecular events in different phases of mitosis. The effect of pesticides on the phases of the cell cycle is described in a number of works. Thus, a study of the effect of butachlor on wheat meristem cells showed, that in root tip cells of wheat, butachlor arrested the mitosis at metaphase and anaphase [13]. In control sets prophase was 50.72%, while it was 55.63% in 1 ppm treatment. However, there was no much signi cant difference in prophase between control and 0.15 ppm concentration of butachlor.
Among the treatment the percentage of anaphase and telophase were decreased, as the concentration of the herbicide increased, when compared to control. On the other hand, the percentage of prophase and metaphase were increased, as the concentration of the herbicide increased, when compared to control. In study Rad et al. [26] on the somatic cells of wheat, the imazethapyr inhibited mitosis and blocked it at the prometaphase, as well. In the control plants, the prophase was 53.40%, while it was 73.22% in the 5 ppm treatment. Among the treatments, frequency of metaphase, anaphase, and telophase decreased.
The toxic effect of pesticides, estimated by the number of abnormal cells, manifested itself in different ways. The number of cells with abnormalities increased signi cantly under the in uence of all three herbicides; from 5.8 times,compared to control,for MET to 8-9 times for FEN and TBM. The number of abnormal cells under the action of fungicides also increased, wherein TEB was twice as high as for AZO and EPO.
The criteria for mitosis disorders under the in uence of mutagens are aberrations: chromatid type, when the chromosome is doubled (single fragments, single bridges) and the chromosomal type, when the chromosome is not doubled (double fragments, double bridges). In the course of studies structural anomalies were identi ed in root apex meristem cells: a) caused by chromosome breaks (bridges, fragments, micronuclei), clastogenic effects; b) caused by damage of the mitotic spindle (lagging chromosomes and their fragments, uneven chromosome separation), aneugenic effects. It should be noted, that for each fungicide and herbicide, a speci c percentage of cells with various anomalies was formed.
The main class of aberrations in the cells of the apical meristem of wheat under the in uence of pesticides was the appearance of small fragments of chromosomes. Chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei are the result of double-stranded DNA breaks. Under the in uence of TBM and FEN, and, especially EPO, the appearance of micronuclei was observed in the apical meristem of wheat, which was not the case with the testing of MET. The number of cells with dicentric chromosomes was highest under the action of the MET and TBM herbicides. The most pronounced effect on the formation of lagging chromosomes was exerted by the fungicide TEB and the herbicide MET. This violation is associated with anomalies in the formation of the spindle of the division, since pesticides can disrupt the polymerization of tubulin [51,52]. It's known, that the herbicide butachlor act as potent spindle inhibitor. The herbicides bind to tubulin, a major microtubule protein. The herbicide -tubulin complex inhibits the polymerization of microtubule, leading to loss of microtubule structure and function. As a result spindle apparatus is absent, thus preventing the alignment and separation of the chromosome during mitosis. In addition to this cell plate cannot be formed [53].
The fungicides AZO and EPO, as well as the FEN herbicide, had the most pronounced effect on chromosome separation processes. Chromosome sticking for these pesticides was a major class of anomalies. The formation of disul de bonds can be the result of oxidative modi cations under conditions of oxidative stress, which fungicides and pesticides induce in cells [20]. However, direct chemical interactions of pesticides with chromatin, which lead to disruption of the molecular architectonics of chromosomes and their sticking, are not excluded [20,54].
An analysis of the literature testi es, that pesticides are capable of causing various types of chromosomal aberrations in higher plants. Already in early studies of the genotoxicity of pesticides, it was shown, that many pesticides are clastogenes: they cause chromosome breaks and fragmentation, which may result to anaphase bridges and destructions [55,56,57];the appearance of micronuclei as well as induce chromosome sticking, adhesions, fragmentation and dissolution of chromosomes, the appearance of micronuclei and binuclear cells [58].The spectrum of intracellular anomalies that induce pesticides is largely determined by the dose, the frequency of exposure and the chemical class, as well as the species characteristics of the plant meristem.In the barley meristem, after exposure to triazine herbicides propazine, atrazine and simazine, the spectrum of aberrations was mainly represented by isolocus breaks, microfragments and chromatid changes. Chromosomal type disorderswere not detected [59]. The fungicides Vitavax (group of dithiocarbamates) and Topsin-Methyl (group of benzimidazoles) induced chromatid and chromosome aberrations in the barley meristem and their number increased depending on the number of treatments and the time interval between them [60].In somatic wheat cells the herbicides butachlor (group of acetanilides) and imazethapyr (group of imidazole) induced doserelated disorders included stickiness of chromosomes, chromosome bridges, nuclear damage, scattered chromosomes, multipolar mitoses and micronuclei [13,26]. Stickiness of chromosomes in wheat cells was observed under the in uence of herbicides 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (a derivative of phenoxyacetic acid, a herbicide from the group of synthetic auxins) and isoproturon (class of phenylureas) [28]. But these two herbicides were characterized by the absence of chromosomal bridges.
The genotoxic effects of pesticides are associated not only with chromatid and chromosomal aberrations, but also with impaired microtubule biogenesis [25]. Cells of control wheat roots contained abundant microtubules both in interphase and mitotic arrays. In chlorpropham (carbamate herbicide) treated roots no microtubules could be detected neither in dividing nor in differentiating cells. Dividing cells became binucleate, polyploid or contained incomplete cell walls as the result of inhibition of cytokinesis. It is assumed that the chlorpropham disorganized directly microtubules in addition to irreversibly affecting microtubule organizing centres, which failed to further support microtubule arrays.Literature data and our results indicate dose-dependent cytogenetic effects of pesticides in plants.

Conclusion
The studied herbicidal and fungicidal pesticides showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect towards development of the roots of Triticum aestivum, grown in hydroponic culture, without negatively affecting of the mitotic indexin all cases. Herbicides and fungicides in uenced the duration of mitosis phases (metaphase, anophase, prophase) and cytokinesis activity in the meristem of the root apex of wheat, and these changes were speci c for all six studied drugs. All pesticides in the experimentation increased the number of abnormal cells in culture, to the greatest extent under the in uence of herbicides Tribenuronmethyl and Fenoxapron-ethyl and fungicides Azoxystrobin and Epoxiconazole (10-12 times, compared with the control -distilled water); to a lesser extent -under the in uence of Metribuzin and Tebuconazole (6-7 times). For the studied herbicides and fungicides, regardless of the mechanism of their damaging effect, the manifestation of both, clastogenic and aneugenic effects, was characteristic. Structural abnormalities, suchchromosome breaks, asbridges, fragments and micronuclei, and damage of the ssion spindle -lagging chromosomes and their fragments, uneven chromosome separation, caused by the application of herbicidal and fungicidal preparations, were revealed in Triticum aestivum meristematic cells.

Materials
Six systemic pesticides, differing in the mechanism of the damaging effect, were investigated (Table 1). The roots of 2-day-old seedlings, obtained in hydroponic culture, were used. For this, the seed grain was washed for 5-6 hours under running water and soaked for 24 hours in distilled water at room temperature. Hatching grains were laid out in Petri dishes of 50 pieces each.
Wheat sprouts were grown as follows: the seeds were washed in running water for 5-6 h and soaked in distilled water for 24 h at room temperature. Germinated seeds were placed into Petri dishes, 50 seeds per dish.In the control variant, 7 ml of distilled water were added to the plates. 7 ml of solutions of pesticides of various concentrations (0.01; 0.10; 1.00 µg/mL) were added to the experimental variants. Seeds were germinated at room temperature under round-the-clock lighting conditions. The length of the main root and the absolutely dry root biomass were determined in the seedlings.

Cytogenetic analysis
Markers of cytotoxicity were the mitotic index (MI) and anaphase-telophase anomalies; genotoxicitychromosomal aberrations and micronuclei.
The 2-day-old roots of wheat seedlings were xed in a mixture of ethanol and glacial acetic acid (as 3:1, by volume), for 24 hours at room temperature. The roots were washed 3 times from the xative with distilled water and stored in 70% ethanol. Before staining, the roots were washed 3 times in distilled water and incubated in 1N HCl on a water bath for 9 min at 60 °C. After hydrolysis, the roots were washed, 3 times with distilled water and were stained with Schiff's reagent for 2 hours at room temperature in the dark. After staining, the roots were washed once again. The top of the root apex (1.0-1.5 mm) was cut off with a sharp scalpel, a drop of 45% acetic acid was applied. After 5-10 minutes, a squeezed preparation was prepared and analyzed under a light microscope. In each experimental variant, 300 cells in various mitotic phases were analyzed.
To determine the mitotic index (MI), 900-1700 cells were analyzed in each preparation. In total, 5000-12000 cells were counted for the evaluation of MI for each pesticide. MI was determined as the percentage of cells in different mitotic phases in relation to the total number of cells analyzed (at least ve roots were used).
Chromosomal abnormalities were investigated in ana-telophase cells. In each sample, were analyzed dividing cells in all elds of vision (in all preparation of root apex meristem).
The percentage of abnormal cells was calculated, as the number of ana-telophase cells, containing the number of abnormal chromosomes, to the total number of ana-telophase cells, and expressed in%. In the control, 300-400 ana-telophase cells were analyzed, under the action of different pesticides -by 150-300 ana-telophase cells.

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis of obtained results was performed, using the standard software package of Microsoft Excel, STATISTICA 8. Arithmetic means and standard deviations were determined using Student's t test.