Exploring the Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Soils from Different Regions Classified into Different Textural Classes

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Exploring the Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Soils from Different Regions Classified into Different Textural Classes

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3561076/v1

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Soil is a living, dynamic structure that plays critical roles in terrestrial ecosystems. Soil texture is an important soil property because it influences other important soil qualities such as soil structure, soil moisture, the diversity of living organisms, plant growth, and overall soil quality. Soil texture has an impact on the chemical and physical qualities of the soil, as well as enzyme activity and microbial population. The study's goal was to look into the chemical characteristics, soil enzymes, and soil respiration of soils with various textures (sandy loam, clay loam, clay, sandy clay loam). Soil samples were collected from eight distinct regions (Kücükkoy, Fethiye, Dinlendik, İçer Çumra, Kuzucu, İnli, Alibeyhüyüğü, and Güvercinlik) at depths ranging from 0 to 30 cm in Konya's Cumra district, and four different texture classes were determined. Soil texture has been shown to have different impacts on pH, EC, lime, organic matter, macro and micro components, soil respiration, and various enzyme activities. These textural alterations resulted in statistically significant differences. Variations in these factors were also shown to change the action of specific soil enzymes. The results also show that clay-textured soil has the highest amounts of microelements, soil respiration, catalase, acid, and alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity.

Basal soil respiration

chemical properties

soil texture

enzyme activities

Soil texture affect soil physical and chemical properties (Sheng et al. 2020), soil nutrients (Kusumawati et al. 2020), enzyme activity and microbial population (de Freitas et al. 1999; Xia et al. 2020). Since soil quality depends on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, it is imperative to take all these properties into account when evaluating soil quality (Mijangos et al. 2010; Paz-Ferreiro et al. 2009). Evaluation of soil biological and biochemical properties is done from three different aspects. The first is biodiversity, in which the type, amount and distribution of microorganisms are determined, the second is population studies, in which the dynamics of special organisms and species used as biological indicators are determined, and finally, the biological cycle of soil enzymes, hence microbial activity, and the elements related to the transformation of organic matter are revealed in ecosystem studies. The objective of this study was to investigate the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soils obtained from various places and categorized based on their respective textural classes. Researchers can enhance their ability to manage and enhance soil health, hence impacting human nutrition, food security, and environmental health, by comprehending the characteristics of diverse soil types. Soil respiration serves as a significant indicator of various ecological processes within the ecosystem, including metabolic activities, plant residue decomposition, and the conversion of soil organic carbon into atmospheric CO₂ (Rochette et al., 1997; Parkin et al., 1996). The activities of soil enzymes exhibit a correlation with significant soil parameters, including organic matter content, texture, and pH. Soil respiration and soil enzyme activity serve as reliable indicators for assessing microbial activity in soil, as well as for evaluating alterations in soil quality resulting from land use practices (Fermandes et al., 2005; Spedding et al., 2004). The enzyme activity of dehydrogenase (DHG) in soil has been widely acknowledged as a reliable indicator of aerobic and facultative anaerobic microorganisms capable of releasing hydrogen through respiration from organic substances (Çengel, 2004). Several prior investigations have indicated that the activity of the dehydrogenase enzyme can serve as a dependable indicator of microbial activity in soil (Skujins, 1976; Wittling et al., 1995; Plaza et al., 2004). According to Brady and Weil (2004), clay soil exhibits a notable capability for adsorbing a wide range of salt ionic compounds. This can be attributed to the substantial specific surface area and chemical association capacity of clay particles, as highlighted by Ge et al. (2019). In their study, Frankberger et al. (1983) observed that the introduction of residues and wastes containing high levels of organic matter resulted in an initial boost in soil microbial activity. Additionally, they noted that this increase in microbial activity led to a subsequent rise in urease activity. However, after a certain period, except within the soil root zone, urease activity exhibited a decline. According to Aşkın et al. (2004), soil microbes generate soil enzymes to facilitate the decomposition of nutrients. These enzymes are well sequestered by soil colloids, including clay and organic matter. Consequently, the enzymes remain active and functional, independent of their association with microorganisms. The activity of catalase may be associated with the metabolic processes of aerobic organisms and has been utilized as an indicator of soil fertility (Trasar-Cepeda et al., 2008). The activity of microorganisms in soil is influenced by soil texture through its impact on soil temperature and water content (Wos et al 2021; Sugihara et al., 2010). Isabel et al, (2016) on their study titled “Soil textural class plays a major role in evaluating the effects of land use on soil quality indicators” reported that studies of microbial and biochemical indicators and soil texture lead to a better under-standing of the ecological processes and soil function. Therefore, the current study explored the physical, chemical, and biological properties of central Anatolian soils for better agronomical decisions with regards to soil textural effect on crop yield in the regions. The findings of this study have the potential to offer reliable insights into the development of more efficient farming practices in central Anatolia.

Soil samples were systematically collected from eight distinct neighborhoods within the Çumra district of Konya province, specifically at a depth of 0–30 cm. The locations from which soil samples were collected encompass Küçükköy, Fethiye, Dinlendik, İçeri Çumra, Kuzucu, İnli, Alibeyhüyüğü, and Güvercinlik. The samples underwent a drying process at ambient temperature to facilitate subsequent physical and chemical examination. Following this, the samples were passed through a sieve with a mesh size of 2 mm. A total of eight soil samples were analyzed, from which four distinct texture classifications were chosen (Bouyoucos 1951). In preparation for biological studies, soil samples were stored in a refrigerated environment at a temperature of + 4^oC, ensuring their containment within firmly sealed containers until the time of analysis. The soil samples underwent a series of physical and chemical analyses, including texture determination, pH measurement, electrical conductivity (EC) assessment in micro siemens per centimeter (µS cm^− 1), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) analysis in percentage (%), organic content evaluation, organic matter quantification in percentage (%), microelement analysis of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) in milligrams per kilogram (mgkg^− 1), as well as microelement analysis of iron (Fe), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), and boron (B) in milligrams per kilogram (mgkg^− 1). The samples underwent the subsequent biological analysis: measurement of basal soil respiration (in milligrams of carbon dioxide per 100 grams of soil dried in an oven, over a period of 24 hours) (Isermeyer 1952), determination of urease activity (in micrograms of nitrogen per gram of soil dried in an oven) (Hoffmani and Teicher 1961), and assessment of dehydrogenase activity (in micrograms of triphenyl formazan per gram of soil dried in an oven, over a period of 24 hours) (Thalmann 1966). The catalase activity was measured in milliliters of oxygen produced per gram of sample (Beck 1971). Additionally, the acid phosphatase activity was measured in micrograms of p-nitrophenol released per gram of oven-dried soil each hour (Tabatabai and Bremner 1970). The alkaline phosphatase activity in the soil, measured in micrograms of p-nitrophenol per gram of oven-dried soil per hour, was determined (Tabatabai and Bremner 1970). The aryl sulfatase activity was measured in micrograms of p-nitrophenol per gram of oven-dried soil per hour (Tabatabai and Bremner 1970).

The soil's pH readings fell within the alkaline range, ranging from 8.1 to 8.5. The soil pH of the soils in relation to texture was in the order of SL˃CL˃C = SCL. Zhu et al (2021) also reported similar results. In their research on soil texture, soil texture also had a significant effect on soil pH, which was substantially negatively correlated with clay content but significantly positively correlated with silt and sand particle contents. Increased porosity in soil leads to an expansion of water-filled areas, which in turn impacts the conduction of electrical current. Therefore, increased soil porosity while moist improves electrical conductivity; a particle that possesses a large surface area and enough pore space exhibits more conductivity, which in turn impacts its potential for yield (Ortiz et al, 2009). However, in relation to salinity, the soil samples exhibit electrical conductivity values ranging from 119 to 547 µmhoscm^− 1 in the order of SCL˃C = CL˃SL, placing them within the saline and mildly saline class. The soil samples in the current study exhibited a carbonates content ranging from 11–30%. However, the distribution of carbonates content across different soil particle sizes was not uniform. The recorded order of carbonates content from highest to lowest was C˃SL˃SCL˃CL. Soils exhibiting diverse textures exhibit a range of 0.9–2.4% organic matter content. Statistical significance was observed in the impact of varying soil texture on pH, electrical conductivity (EC), lime content, and organic matter. The nitrogen level of the soils was in the range of 223–441 mgkg^− 1, with the soil possessing a sandy clay loam texture demonstrating the highest nitrogen content. The soil sample with a clay loam texture exhibited the lowest nitrogen level. The phosphorus content in soils exhibiting varying textures ranges from 6 to 12 mgkg^− 1, indicating low to medium levels.

Table 1

Effects of soils with different on textures pH, salinity, lime and organic matter, macro and micro elements
Properties		Textural classes				Methods
Properties		Sandy loam	Clay loam	Clay	Sandy clay loam
pH		8.5 a	8.3 b	8.1 c	8.1 c	Richards 1954
EC (µmhos cm^− 1)		119 c	161 b	195 b	547 a	U.S. Salinity Lab. Staff 1954
CaCO₃ (%)		24 b	11 d	30 a	19 c	Hızalan and Ünal 1966
Organic Matter (%)		1.0 b	1.0 b	2.4 a	0.9 b	Smith and Weldon 1941
N (NH₄ + NO₃)	mgkg^− 1	233 c	223 c	362 b	441 a	Bremner 1965
P		6.0 c	6.0 c	12.0 a	8.0 b	Olsen et al. 1954
K		140 b	179 a	107 c	73 d	Soltanpour and Workman 1981
Ca		4075 c	4937 b	6976 a	4086 c	Soltanpour and Workman 1981
Mg		323 d	762 a	668 b	434 c	Soltanpour and Workman 1981
Fe		4.2 d	6.5 b	7.9 a	5.3 c	Lindsay and Norvell 1978
Cu		0.3 b	0.6 a	0.6 a	0.3 b	Lindsay and Norvell 1978
Mn		5.9 b	6.3 b	16.6 a	4.8 b	Lindsay and Norvell 1978
Zn		0.4 b	0.3 b	0.9 a	0.5 b	Lindsay and Norvell 1978
B		1.8 c	2.6 b	2.9 a	1.6 d	Richards 1954

The soil with a sandy clay loam texture exhibited the lowest potassium level, measuring at 73 mgkg^− 1. The soil with clay texture exhibited the highest calcium content, measuring 6976 mgkg^− 1. The magnesium concentrations in soils with varying textures ranged from 323 to 762 mgkg^− 1. The statistical significance of the impact of soil texture on macro elements was determined as shown in Table 1. The iron concentration in soils of varying textures ranges from 4.2 to 7.9 mgkg^− 1, falling within the category of adequate levels. The soil sample with a clayey texture exhibited the highest iron content as calculated. From Table 3, the soil samples exhibit a range of copper concentrations, ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 mgkg^− 1. According to the data presented in Table 3, the soil sample with a clay texture exhibited the highest manganese level, measuring 16.6 mgkg^− 1. Conversely, the soil sample with a sandy clay loam texture displayed the lowest manganese content, measuring 4.8 mgkg^− 1. The study revealed that the zinc concentration in the soils exhibited a range of 0.3 to 0.9 mgkg^− 1. The boron concentrations exhibit a range of values spanning from 1.6 to 2.9 mgkg^− 1. The soil sample with clay texture often exhibited the greatest microelement levels when analyzed. The statistical significance of the impact of soil texture on microelement levels was observed.

Basal soil respiration across the textural classes was in the order of C˃CL˃SCL˃SL indicating that the finer the soil texture was, the higher the soil respiration rate was. This is because the higher the amount of micropores in the soil, the higher the amount of basal soil respiration in low rain fed areas like central Anatolia. The investigation revealed that there was a notable disparity in the carbon dioxide emissions among soils with varying textures, and this discrepancy was determined to possess statistical significance. The soil texture had an impact on the carbon dioxide levels, with the soil containing clay texture exhibiting the greatest value of 31.16 mg CO₂ 100 g^− 1 dry soil 24 h^− 1, while the soil with sandy loam texture had the lowest value of 15.97 16 mg CO₂ 100 g^− 1 dry soil 24 h^− 1 both of which are within the required range of 14.29–28.57 units base on the report by Doran and Brinton (2001). According to a study conducted by Eivazi and Zakaria (1993), it has been established that clayey soil has a higher level of biological activity compared to other types of soils. The results reveal that the higher the clay content of the soil, the soil respiration as the order C˃CL˃SCL˃SL can deduced from the figure showing relationship between soil respiration and textural classes. According to Dick (1994), urease is an enzyme that facilitates the hydrolysis of urea, resulting in the production of carbon dioxide and ammonia. This enzyme has been identified as the sole catalyst that significantly influences the condition and efficacy of urea, a crucial fertilizer, inside the soil. The study observed variations in urease enzyme activity among soils with distinct textures, and these differences were determined to be statistically significant (p < 0.01). The soil with sandy clay loam texture exhibited the highest urease enzyme activity, measuring 43.39 µg N g^− 1 dry soil^− 1 followed by clay loam and sandy loam while the soil with clay texture displayed the lowest urease enzyme activity, measuring 25.24 µg N g^− 1 dry soil^− 1. According to Tabatai (1977), urease activity in soils is affected by organic matter content, soil depth, soil amendments, heavy metals, and environmental factors including temperatures, among others. Though the obtained values of urease enzyme activities are okay base on the reported ranges by Hofmann et al (1966) however, Anatolia soils are mostly clayey and most farmers apply nitrogen in form of urea so, soil amendments that lead to increase in activities of urease in the regions of Anatolia would increase soil productivity. Organic matter in central Anatolia is low which could cause low urease activity. As for the effect of temperature on the activity of urease fertilization of farms with urea could be done when it hot to increase the activity of the enzyme in the region. The sensitivity of dehydrogenase enzyme activity to environmental conditions, including soil moisture, temperature, and organic matter content, has been extensively studied (Dick, 1994). The activities of dehydrogenase enzymes in soils exhibiting varying textures were observed to be distinct, and this disparity was determined to possess statistical significance. The study revealed that the activity values of the dehydrogenase enzyme in the soils ranged from 5.57 to 28.90 µg TPF g dry soil 24 h^− 1, as depicted in Fig. 3. The soil exhibiting sandy loam texture demonstrated the highest level of dehydrogenase enzyme activity, while the soil characterized by clay loam texture exhibited the lowest dehydrogenase activity. Dehydrogenase enzyme activity less than 50 µg TPF g soil 24 h^− 1 is regarded low (Tosun et al, 1975). Most soils in central Anatolia belong to clay loam texture which according to current study exhibit lower activity of dehydrogenase. Makoi and Ndakidemi (2008) emphasize the significance of studying the activities of the dehydrogenase enzyme in soil. This research provides valuable insights into the soil's capacity to support vital biochemical processes that are crucial for preserving soil fertility. The catalase enzyme is responsible for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) into water and oxygen. It is produced because of the respiratory and metabolic processes occurring within living organisms. The catalase enzyme activity levels of soils exhibiting distinct textures exhibit a range of 1.73–5.60 ml O₂ 5 g^− 1, with this variation being determined to possess statistical significance. The soil sample with clay texture exhibited the highest catalase enzyme activity value, whereas the soil with sandy clay loam texture displayed the lowest catalase enzyme activity value. The extended duration of the enzyme activity can be attributed to the beneficial protective effect resulting from the significant adsorption capacity of clay and silt particles for enzymes (Busto and Perez-Mateos, 1995). When there is a signal indicating P deficiency in the soil, plant roots secrete more acid phosphatase to increase the solubilization and remobilization of phosphate, thereby affecting the plant's ability to tolerate P-stressed conditions (Versaw and Harrison, 2002). The soil texture was found to have a considerable impact on the acid phosphatase enzyme activity values, as evidenced by statistically significant differences observed. The activity of the acid phosphatase enzyme exhibited a range of values spanning from 75.15 to 170.78 µg p-nitrophenol g^− 1 dry soil h^− 1. Notably, the soil with a clay texture demonstrated the highest recorded value for acid phosphatase enzyme activity. The soil sample exhibiting sandy loam texture displayed the most minimal acid phosphatase enzyme activity value. The alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity values of the soils exhibited variations based on the soil texture, and these variations were determined to be statistically significant. The range of alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity values observed was 167.11-528.89 µg p-nitrophenol g^− 1 dry soil h^− 1, with the greatest value recorded in soil characterized by a clay texture. The soil sample with a sandy clay loam texture exhibited the lowest recorded value of alkaline phosphatase enzyme activity. The activity values of the arylsulfatase enzyme in soils with varying textures exhibited variations among the soil types, although these variations were determined to lack statistical significance. The activity of the arylsulfatase enzyme exhibited a range of values from 273.56 to 281.49 µg p-nitrophenol g^− 1 dry soil h^− 1. Notably, the soil with a sandy clay loam texture displayed the highest recorded arylsulfatase enzyme activity value. The soil sample exhibiting a clay loam texture displayed the lowest observed arylsulfatase enzyme activity value.

The soil is a system that includes its physical, chemical, and biological features. Each of these properties influences the soil's behavior at a different level and contributes to the overall determination of the soil's quality. In prior research, the quality of the soil is determined by looking at its several component aspects, including its physical and chemical composition. On their own, however, physical, and chemical qualities are not always sufficient to provide meaningful results when indicating the quality of soil. Evaluation methods that do not consider the biological features of the soil are insufficient. In recent years, biochemical soil characteristics have become an increasingly popular method for evaluating soil quality in a variety of contexts. Because of this, the impacts of soil texture on soil pH, EC, lime, organic matter, macro and micro elements, soil respiration, and some soil enzyme activities exhibited differences, and these differences were found to be statistically significant. In addition, the changes in these factors were shown to affect the activities of some soil enzymes. In general, values of microelements, soil respiration, catalase, acid, and alkaline phosphatase enzyme activities were found to be at their maximum levels in clay-textured soil. As a consequence of this, the texture of the soil is an essential component in determining the soil's physical and chemical characteristics, as well as its nutritional contents, enzyme activity, and microbial population.

The authors hereby give approval and consent to participate in the “Ethics approval and consent to participate” section of the Declarations.

All authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on "Ethical responsibilities of Authors" as found in the Instructions for Authors.

Availability of data and material: the data used for the manuscript will be provided upon request.
Competing interests: there are no any competing interests with regard to the study.
Funding: No funding was obtained for this study.
Authors' contributions: Mohammed Saba obatained the soil samples used for the study, wrote the chapter one and two as well the final editing of the final manuscript while Ummahan Çetin Karaca analysed the samples, wrote the chapter three and four.

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No competing interests reported.

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Exploring the Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Soils from Different Regions Classified into Different Textural Classes

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