Controlling factors on the water chemistry of the Euphrates River in the Western Desert of Iraq Environmental Earth Sciences Journal

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3578591/v1

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Controlling factors on the water chemistry of the Euphrates River in the Western Desert of Iraq Environmental Earth Sciences Journal

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3578591/v1

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The Euphrates River is one of the most important rivers in West Asia, passing through Turkey, Syria, and Iraq, and is vital to their economies. Several factors influence river water chemistry, including location, river bed geology, human activities, and environmental conditions. The upstream activities (dam construction, agricultural activities, and industrial discharges) are important factors that influence the Euphrates River's water chemistry. The Euphrates River is of fresh water with a slightly alkaline pH. The ranges of the total dissolved solids from 626.56 to 888.01 mg/l, electrical conductivity from 895.08 to 1268.58 µS/cm, and total hardness from 359.25 to 477.08 mg/l downstream all slightly increased as a result of geological processes, particularly the dissolution of river bed rocks in addition to the anthropogenic activities. The Euphrates River's water quality is primarily influenced by geological formations, particularly the Euphrates and the Fatha formations, so sulfate, chloride, sodium and calcium predominate. The chemistry of the river water was unaffected by the aquifer hydraulic system; on the contrary, the river impacts it by feeding it.

Euphrates River chemistry

Hydrochemistry

Hydrological conditions

Shortage Water

The Euphrates River is considered one of the most significant rivers in the Middle East in western Asia and flows through Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The Euphrates River is formed from the convergence of two tributaries, Furat Su and Murad Su, originating from the Armenia plateau of Turkey land at an altitude of 3000 m asl (Hipel et al., 2014). The river's course descends to the south, continuing on its route in the Turkish lands. It enters the Syrian lands at Jarabulus, covering a distance of about 455 km in Turkey from the confluence of the two rivers to Jarabulus. It changes its course to the south and east to Al-Bukamal city, running 680 km within the Syrian lands. It enters Iraq from Al-Qa'im and runs in Iraq about 1200 km, as it heads east and then southeast through the Western Desert of Iraq. The river course widens near Ramadi with a weak slope, approaching the Tigris River near Fallujah and Musayyib, which branches out into several branches south of Al-Musayyib (Awadh and Ahmed, 2013). The river at the estuary enters the wetlands of Al-Hammar marsh and then meets the Tigris River, forming a wide river called the Shatt Al-Arab to the north of Basra, which flows into the Arabian Gulf. After crossing the Iraq-Syria border, it meets many seasonal ephemeral valleys in the desert, such as Al-Maneie, Al-Qaiem, Al-Rabba'I, Jababb, and Al-Khazkaa, Sawabb, Akashatt and Al-Rataga Vallies. (Al-Kubaisi et al., 2023).The Euphrates River provides Iraq with drinking, domestic, irrigation water and hydroelectric power generation. The river faces various challenges, including water scarcity, pollution, and the increased need for water in terms of the daily needs of individuals, agriculture, industry, and other uses. The dam construction and water diversions upstream in Turkey and Syria affected the Euphrates water flow in Iraq. Efforts are being made to arrange water sharing and environmental preservation by the Iraqi government and researchers with international organizations and neighboring countries to ensure sustainable management of the Euphrates River. The climate and landscapes around the river vary as it is hot-dry summer and semi-rainy cold winter (Awadh and Ahmad, 2012). Mountains in Turkey and plains and deserts in Syria and Iraq dominate the land diversity. Iraq is experiencing water shortage issues due to rising demand, climate change and population growth. It covers an area of 437072 km² with a population of 38.27 million (Al-Ansari et al., 2019). The Euphrates River, which follows in western Iraq, crosses several towns needed to guide sustainable development there. To achieve the sustainability of good quality water, water must be protected and managed in an integrated manner. Therefore, the increasing interest in evaluating water and monitoring its quantity and suitability for various service purposes is necessary and what our daily lives require (Al-Kubaisi, 2020). The change in the Euphrates River's water quality significantly impacts the river's ecosystems, as the water chemistry supports the aquatic life, including various fish species (Awadh and Al-Ghani, 2014).

The Euphrates River is one of the two major rivers in Mesopotamia, and its geology plays a crucial role in shaping the landscape and supporting human civilization in the region. The Euphrates River basin covers a vast area, and the geology of its bed varies along its course. The bedrock of the Euphrates River mainly consists of sedimentary sediments covered by large amounts of sediment, including clay, silt, sand, and gravel, transported by the water current. These sediments have been sourced from the surrounding mountains and eroded from the riverbanks. The Euphrates River flows through a mountainous region near its source in eastern Turkey. Heading towards the flat plains in Syria and Iraq, forming an alluvial fan, due to the slowdown in the current flow, depositing coarse sediments, forming an alluvial fan. The Euphrates River has large fluctuations in its flow due to seasonal changes in rainfall and snowmelt at its sources and in the mountainous areas through which it passes. Erosion and sedimentation processes associated with the bed of the stream shape the riverbed and its banks over time. The river's meandering path was formed as a result of dynamic processes. The Euphrates River forms terraces along its course of old sedimentary deposits left behind as the river changed its course or inched lower over time. Sedimentation and erosion, which can affect the river's course and surroundings, are more likely due to the region's rapid urbanization and agricultural activities (Awadh and Ahmed, 2013). The construction of dams and reservoirs for water management, irrigation, and hydroelectric power generation significantly changed the course of the Euphrates River. These engineering projects have impacted considerably the geology and ecology of the river. The lithology of the Euphrates Formation can significantly impact the flow and chemistry of the water in the Euphrates River.

To illustrate the effect of the earth on the waters of the Euphrates River, Fig. 2 is presented. The main controlling factors of the Euphrates River are the Euphrates (Lower Miocene) and Fatha (Upper Miocene) formations. Lithology of the Euphrates Formation can contribute to the river's sediment load, causing increased turbidity and sedimentation. Anions, cations and nutrients (P and N) leach into river water as a result of limestone dissolution, contributing to the rise of calcium and carbonate ions and potentially affecting the river's water hardness and alkalinity. The Fatha Formation, mainly composed of gypsum and marl, has the potential to influence the geology and hydrogeology of the Euphrates River basin. The Fatha Formation acts as an aquifer. The groundwater interactions with the Euphrates River can affect water chemistry and flow rates. The contribution of the groundwater to its base flow depends on the aquifer's location and depth. The excessive salinity from the Fatha Formation can be released into the Euphrates River, potentially affecting water resources for both humans and ecosystems. In some cases, certain rocks can cause acidic conditions in river water. When sulfur is present in the water, it generates acidic substances that change the natural interactions in the river, aquatic life, and water quality. Near the Heet town, springs empty sulfide water into the Euphrates River, creating a local environment different from the general river.

The Euphrates River sector studied is 455.92 km long, in a semi-arid climate area in the Western Desert of Iraq (Fig. 3), with the mean annual precipitation varying from 100 to 150 mm, the mean annual potential evaporation ranging from 1,600 to 2,200 mm, and a mean temperature of 19–25°C. The precipitation changes significantly during a year, with high variation from the rainy to drought season. The distribution of population in the basin increases from upstream to downstream. The domain lithology of the Euphrates basin in the study area is Miocene to Recent, which is mainly characterized by carbonates and gypsum. One hundred forty-four water samples were collected from a depth of 30 cm from twelve stations distributed along the Euphrates River in Anbar Governorate. Samples were collected once a year from October 2021 to October 2022 and stored in polyethene bottles that were many times precleaned with river water. The pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), and temperature were measured in situ using HANNA pH-213 and HANNA Hi2300. The Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Na⁺, HCO₃⁻, CO₃²⁻, SO₄²⁻, and Cl⁻ were measured at the laboratory of the Anbar Water Directorate. The instrument was calibrated before measurement with a standard buffer solution (pH: 4, 7 and 10). Turbidity was measured using a turbidity meter (HACH.2100N), and the instrument was calibrated before measurement with standard solutions according to APHA (1998) and APHA (2003). Bicarbonate was titrated with 0.01N NaOH using phenolphthalein as an indicator (MGMR, 1993).

The total hardness (TH) was measured based on Lind (1979). Clacium was determined by titration against EDTA (Lind, 1979). Magnesium ion concentration was calculated using the equation below:

\({Mg}^{2+} mg/l=\left[Total Hardness-Calcium Hardness\right] x 0.244\) ------- (1)

The chloride ion concentration was measured using the silver nitrate titration method according to APHA (1998). Sulphates were measured by diluting 100 mL of sample by adding 100 mL of distilled water and then adjusting pH with HCl to pH 4.5 to 5.0. Heat to boiling, stirring gently, and slowly add warm BaCl₂ solution until precipitation appears complete, then filter and weigh.

\(mg{ BaSO}_{4} x 411․6/mL sample = mg {SO}_{4}^{2-} /L\) -------- (1)

Nitrates were measured using Wagtech WTD kits, and ammonium ions were measured using kits by Multi Direct.

The TDS was also measured in the lab by evaporationو 50 mL of sample was filtered with 0.45 µm Millipore filter paper, the filtrate was collected in a weighted evaporation dish (B) and evaporated to dryness in a drying oven to 103–105°C for 1h, then evaporated plate cooling and weighing (A):

\(TDS (mg/L) = (A-B) x 1000/ volume of sample \left(mL\right)\) -------- (3)

The APHA (1998) method was used in determining the Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

Sodium and K ions were measured by the flame emission photometric method using a BWB XP. Sodium standard solutions (20, 40, 60, 80 and 100 ppm) and potassium (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 ppm) were prepared.

The results are acceptable (less than 5%) due to the CBE values, which were computed based on Hounslow (1995) as follows:

as follows;

\(\left(CBE\right) \%= \left|\frac{\sum \left(cations\right) meq/l-\sum \left(anions\right) meq/l}{\sum \left(cations\right) meq/l+\sum \left(anions\right) meq/l}\right|x100․0\) -------- (4)

The ionic balance illustrated in Fig. 4 displys the harmony of the concentrations of positive and negative ions.

4.1 Discharge and water shortage

River flow or discharge plays a crucial role in river hydrology and is affected by rainfall rates, floods and droughts, topography, and permeability of the river bed. Human activities such as dam construction, irrigation, and water withdrawal can alter river flow. River Flow Regimes can show different patterns or regimes as some rivers are characterized by seasonal changes in flow, with flow being higher during wet seasons and lower flow during dry seasons. Others, especially in areas with constant rainfall, may have a relatively steady flow throughout the year (Yasen et al., 2018). The dams built in Turkey on the Euphrates River as part of the Anatolia Project (GAP) for generating electricity and storing water for agricultural and domestic use reduced downstream water flow into Syria and Iraq, leading to concerns about water shortages in these countries. Long-term droughts have exacerbated water scarcity problems. Climate change is expected to exacerbate these challenges by changing rainfall patterns and increasing evaporation rates. Reduced water flow leads to lower agricultural productivity and economic hardship for farmers. It also causes significant humanitarian consequences, as it poses a threat to public health, food security, and population displacement. Iraq receives 25.52 km³ annually from the Euphrates River; the whole amount of water comes outside Iraq's borders. The annual decrease of the water inflow is 0.245 km³/year for the Euphrates, meaning the annual percentage reduction of inflow rates is 0.960% (Issa et al., 2014). Managing water resources in the Euphrates basin is a complex and often contentious issue due to competing demands for water, which can impact the river's chemistry and flow.

4.2 River-aquifer connectivity

In the Western Desert, groundwater movement is generally to the north, to the northeast, and the east within the study area (Fig. 5). This means that groundwater naturally flows from higher places in the western part of the Western Desert to lower elevation areas represented by the drainage areas of the Euphrates River. This movement is under the influence of gravity and the terrain and is consistent with the hydraulic gradient of groundwater.

Groundwater in the Western Desert is naturally connected to the depth of the Euphrates River when the river flows during flood periods. During these periods, the river feeds the aquifers; when the level of the Euphrates River decreases, groundwater flows from aquifers into the river to compensate for the decrease in water flow. This interaction between groundwater and the Euphrates River provides a sustainable source of drinking and irrigation water for the areas surrounding the river and the Western Desert.

4.3 Water characteristics and composition

The Euphrates River water is generally neutral or slightly alkaline and typically has a 7.60 to 7.99 pH range, with an average of 7.81. However, the slight variation in the pH is due to geological influences, anthropogenic activity, and seasonal variations. The value of the TDS from 626.56 mg/l to 888.01 mg/l with an average of 799.46 mg/l in the Euphrates River is a reflection of bedrock chemical weathering. It is not hazardous but could limit some uses. Geological processes, especially the dissolution of riverbed rocks along with anthropogenic activities, caused a slight increase in total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), and total hardness (TH) downstream (Table 1).

Table 1

Physical composition of the Euphrates River water within the study area
Stations	T (°C)	pH	EC (µS/cm)	TDS (mg/l)	TH (mg/l)	Turb. (NTU)
Al-Qaiem	23.42	7.60	895.08	626.56	359.25	3.88
Rawa	24.17	7.71	1035.83	725.08	397.75	15.68
Anah	22.75	7.61	1067.75	747.43	417.42	7.34
Haditha	24.33	7.78	1096.92	767.84	397.08	1.93
Al-Baghdadi	24.25	7.95	1116.08	781.26	402.50	2.43
Heet	24.67	7.99	1117.75	782.43	416.00	7.92
Al-Furat	23.67	7.96	1191.17	833.82	408.83	3.59
Ramadi	23.50	7.94	1201.50	841.05	432.58	7.61
Al-Khalediyya	23.83	7.91	1222.92	856.04	440.42	6.18
Saqlawiah	23.08	7.79	1258.83	881.18	457.50	14.65
Falluja	24.92	7.78	1232.67	862.87	465.67	4.81
Ameria	20.75	7.75	1268.58	888.01	477.08	8.13
Min.	20.75	7.60	895.08	626.56	359.25	1.93
Max.	24.92	7.99	1268.58	888.01	477.08	15.68
Average	23.61	7.81	1142.09	799.46	422.67	7.01

Various factors, including geological features, climate, human activities, and interactions with other water bodies, influence the Euphrates River's chemistry in Iraq. Some hydrocarbon pollutants pollute the Euphrates River in limited areas in Rawa, Hadetha and Heet (Al-Rawi et al., 2014; Awadh et al., 2013). The water chemistry, in particular, shows a high degree of weathering of the bed lithology as the river passes over various geological formations. The Euphrates and Fatha formations are the main formations that impact the chemistry of the Euphrates River. The river in the study area faces the same climatic factors, so the temperature is almost constant, ranging from 20.75°C to 24.92°C with an average of 23.61°C, with no fluctuation in the pH values, indicating the absence of influential additions. In contrast, we find an evident change in the amount of TSS, and this is reflected in the turbidity level at each station, the grain size of the sediments and the current speed (Table 1 and Fig. 6) derived from the organic matter, and different suspended particles such as silt and clay. The TSS affects water clarity and plays a role in transporting nutrients and pollutants.

The concentrations of cations and anions are listed in Table 2 and illustrated in Fig. 7. The chemical composition varies with the location along the river and the season. Ions of sulfate ranging from 224.00 mg/l to 366.92 mg/l with an average of 305.56 mg/l and calcium ranging from 78.25 mg/l to 116.08 mg/l with an average of 99.47 mg/l predominate in the water of the Euphrates River and are a reflection of the geology of the river bed, specifically the dissolution of gypsum from the Fatha Formation. The chlorine concentration ranging from 107.92 mg/l to 138.00 mg/l with an average of 129.53 mg/L is in harmony with the sodium ranging from 82.33 mg/l to 116.17 mg/l with an average of 106.22 mg/L, indicating the dissolution of the halite disseminated in the bottom rocks. Bicarbonate ranging from 80.83 mg/l to 108.33 mg/l with an average of 103.13 mg/l dissolved in water is a source of CO₂ emissions, eventually contributing to soil CO₂ efflux. The concentration of both magnesium, ranging from 27.25 mg/l to 37.33 mg/l with an average of 34.08 mg/L and potassium, ranging from 3.79 mg/l to 6.28 mg/l, with an average of 5.42 mg/l, decreases due to the scarcity of the Mg, K – bearing minerals. The Euphrates River water contains nutrients in nitrates essential for plant growth originating from farming runoff and wastewater discharges. Human activities can have adverse effects on water quality and aquatic ecosystems. Human activities, including industrial and agricultural wastes and urban wastewater, change the chemistry of the Euphrates River water, as they may increase the content of heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, and organic compounds. Although some variations exist, the studied river sector is closer to chemically homogeneous water. Salinity in the Euphrates River water depends on the amount of dissolved ions, evaporation, and natural and human water inputs. Ultimately, a glance at Fig. 8 can explain the chemistry of the Euphrates River and provide an understandable impression of the water's characteristics at each station.

Table 2

Cations and anions (mg/L) content in the stations studied along the Euphrates River.
Stations	Ca²⁺	Mg²⁺	Na⁺	K⁺	Σ Cations	Cl⁻	SO₄²⁻	HCO₃⁻	Σ Anions
Al-Qaiem	78.25	27.25	82.33	3.79	191.63	107.92	224.00	80.83	412.75
Rawa	81.92	31.83	102.33	5.97	222.05	133.00	248.83	97.92	479.75
Anah	94.83	30.42	106.58	4.49	236.33	137.08	259.58	105.83	502.50
Haditha	91.17	34.00	100.33	5.28	230.78	119.25	299.50	107.92	526.67
Al-Baghdadi	100.58	34.25	99.50	5.28	239.62	129.75	293.50	107.67	530.92
Heet	98.33	31.50	105.00	5.84	240.68	129.50	291.00	106.00	526.50
Al-Furat	98.25	37.33	114.33	5.98	255.89	129.50	321.17	108.33	559.00
Ramadi	103.00	37.08	107.33	5.34	252.76	133.50	326.00	107.50	567.00
Al-Khalediyya	103.42	37.33	112.50	5.68	258.93	137.50	334.75	107.25	579.50
Saqlawiah	115.17	36.83	115.25	5.69	272.94	138.00	352.50	104.50	595.00
Falluja	112.67	35.33	113.00	5.46	266.46	128.42	348.92	101.25	578.58
Ameria	116.08	35.75	116.17	6.28	274.28	130.92	366.92	102.50	600.33
Min.	78.25	27.25	82.33	3.79	191.63	107.92	224.00	80.83	412.75
Max.	116.08	37.33	116.17	6.28	274.28	138.00	366.92	108.33	600.33
Average	99.47	34.08	106.22	5.42	245.19	129.53	305.56	103.13	538.21

4.4 Water quality and classification

In western Iraq, the aquifers extend along the Mesopotamian basin in the study area, forming hydrological conditions composed of Miocene carbonates that are often deeper than the river. For this reason, it is not expected to affect the chemistry of the river. On the contrary, the river feeds these aquifers. Ternary plots of major cations and anions for the Euphrates River water, using the classification system of Hem (1985): (a) brines (> 35 000 mg/L), (b) saline water (10 000–35 000 mg/L), (c) brackish water (2000–10 000 mg/L), and (d) fresh water (< 2000 g/L). (d) Fresh water represents the present study (Euphrates River water); n, number of samples. The mineralogy of the river bed and banks has a fingerprint on the river's chemistry, in addition to human influences. Figure 9 plots chemical information from the carbonate rock aquifer using ternary diagrams. According to Hem's (1985) classification scheme, the data are broken down into four categories: brines (> 35 000 mg/L), saline waters (10 000–35 000 mg/L), brackish waters (2000–10 000 mg/L), and freshwater (2000 mg/L). Cations over 80% Na and anions over 90% Cl are characteristics of brines. These ions also dominate saline and brackish waters, but these waters may also contain significant amounts of Ca + Mg and SO4. Freshwater has a TDS value of less than 2000 mg/L, with SO4, Cl, Ca, and Na being the main constituents. Additionally, due to the hydrological situation, Aquifer brackish water cannot discharge to the river's bottom and alter its local ionic composition due to the hydrological conditions. The TDS 799.46 mg/l in the Euphrates is gradually increased with the river's downstream course due to geogenic and anthropogenic factors. Carpenter (1978) used experimental data to derive the evaporation and dilution curves from Holland (1978), who provided typical seawater's Cl/Na ratio. The Euphrates River's Na/Cl ratio of 0.82 mg/l is much lower than that of seawater (Fig. 10). sodium is closely related to Cl and moves in the same trend as the evaporation and dilution curve, indicating that water and rocks interact.

The results provided a comprehensive overview of the water chemistry of the Euphrates River in the studied sector in western Iraq, as a high weathering rate was recorded, reflected in the water chemistry. Hydrogeological conditions show that the river feeds the aquifers, so they do not affect the chemistry of the river. The chemistry of the Euphrates River is mainly affected by geogenic and anthropogenic factors. Geological formations exposed to the surface affect the river water due to the dissolving of the elements during the surface runoff that flows into the river. The Euphrates and Fatha formations are cropping out there, and their lithologies are considered the most important factors affecting the chemistry of the Euphrates River water. The bed sediments and banks of the river also add elements due to dissolution processes. The anthropogenic actions such as land use, industrial and agricultural sources, and the high nutrient content such as nitrogen and phosphorus derived from agricultural runoff cause deterioration of water quality. In addition, climate and water management practices also play important roles in changing river water characteristics. Flow disturbances between rainy and dry seasons and influx from dams cause variations in the transport of large amounts of sediment, including clay, silt and sand, affecting water turbidity and quality downstream. The Euphrates River water typically is loaded with a mixture of TDS and TSS, reflecting the composition of the water changing along the course of the river. These elements can affect water hardness and suitability for multiple uses. The current study recommends understanding the interactions to manage and protect water quality and the river ecosystem. On the other hand, the local and regional authorities in the Euphrates flow countries (Turkey, Syria, and Iraq) are invited to carefully monitor water quality and cooperate in managing river resources to ensure long-term use and reduce negative environmental impacts.

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to the local people who provided some needs and amenities. Thanks and appreciation also go to the staff of the Anbar Water Directorate for their contribution to analyzing the samples.

Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

Competing interests: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

Author contributions: All authors contributed to the study conception and design, data collection, and manuscript writing. Salih M. Awadh put the principle concept of the research and wrote the manuscript. Mahmood H. D. Al-Kubaisi collected data and prepared figures and mapping required. All authors contributed to data analysis and manuscript revision and read and approved the final manuscript.

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No competing interests reported.

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Controlling factors on the water chemistry of the Euphrates River in the Western Desert of Iraq Environmental Earth Sciences Journal

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

2. Geology Overview

3. Study area and methods

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Discharge and water shortage

4.2 River-aquifer connectivity

4.3 Water characteristics and composition

4.4 Water quality and classification

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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