Technostress and remote Virtual work environment among University Staff Members: A cross-sectional study

Technostress during the COVID-19 pandemic has become more prevalent as a result of the global preventive measures applied to limit the spread of infection. These measures included remote working from home in both public and private organizations. To study Technostress and challenges of remote Virtual work environment among University Staff Members at Menoua University, Egypt. A cross-sectional study was conducted over Menoua university academic staff members in Egypt. The participants were chosen from both practical and theoretical colleges in Menoua University using a multistage random sample. Tarfadar techno-stress questionnaire was used. Cortisol blood level was measured for all participants. Results: This study included 142 participants. The mean age of the group was 36.32± 6.41 years. 52.1 percent worked in practical colleges, and 60.6 percent were lecturers or higher. Their mean cortisol level was 15.61± 7.07mcg/dl. Participants who were females, reside in rural areas, held a lecturer or higher position, had poor work-environment Wi, and lacked technical training had signicantly higher levels of technostress subscales. Most of the technostress subscales were signicantly correlated with age and blood cortisol levels. The predictors of work overload in multivariate regression were female gender and a work environment with poor WIFI. Female gender, theoretical colleges, being lecturer or higher and poor WIFI were the predictors for invasion. Among university staff members, was found to be evident. High levels of technostress were signicantly inuenced by age, higher professions, female gender, and a bad workplace


Introduction
COVID-19 became a pandemic at the beginning of 2020, affecting many countries worldwide, including Egypt. Many measures have been implemented to reduce its spread, the most signi cant of which was remote home working, which kept people at home and socially separated (Spagnoli & Molinaro, 2020) Following this public health disaster, quarantine and lockdown measures have been implemented globally. These measures can cause a variety of psychological issues, including increased stress and decreased emotional well-being (Sica et al., 2021).
Many factors may contribute to fear and stress following COVID-19, including not only the direct impact on people's health, but also fears for unemployment due to COVID-19-related restrictions, economic di culties, and concerns about one's health. These stressors and concerns may result in a lower quality of life (van Ballegooijen et al., 2021).
Over the past few years especially after COVID-19, Various Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) such as television, mobile phones, the internet, satellite systems, and computer technologies have changed daily. Education, health, the environment, culture, art, and entertainment are all affected by these changes (Hoffman, Novak, and Venkatesh 2004). As a result, the majority of the population is struggling to keep up with rapid technological advancements. Change is an unavoidable part of life, and everyone treats it differently. The ICTs have a dual effect (Ayyagari et al., 2011;Hoffman et al., 2004;Liaw, 2002).
Whereas the use of ICTs has made substantial productivity gains, creativity, and organizational e ciency, their negative impact should not be ignored on organizations and staff. Organizational culture has become a major source of stress for today's workforce as a result of disruptions in business processes, employee duties, and roles caused by ICTs (Rowden & Conine, 2005).
Stress is de ned as a mental and physical situation that in uences an individual's health, work, and quality of life, with a focus on work-related stress that deprives workers of work satisfaction and quality of life. Technostress is de ned as modern disorders of adaptation resulting from a lack of safe handling of new technologies. It is driven by technological tasks like planning meetings, business plans, and concern over time limits for work (Choudhury, 2013).
ICT is not the only cause of technostress; many other factors contribute to the development of this stress.
Many organizations make the use of ICT one of their primary requirements (Tarafdar, Tu, and Ragu-Nathan 2010), as do coworkers, who frequently have an impact on individuals' use of ICT (Avanzi et al. 2018). Technostress caused by mis ts between teachers and different aspects of the university setting may in uence university teachers' performance negatively, leading to job burnout and even plans to leave the profession (Al-Fudail and Peterson 2004;Tarafdar, Pullins, and Ragu-Nathan 2014;Pignata et al. 2016). This stress may manifest itself in both physical and psychological symptoms and this has been reported by researchers in the computer science, health, and accounting elds (Sami & Pangannaiah, 2006). This stress can cause an increase in blood pressure and heart rate, as well as muscle tension, such as a clenched jaw and increased skin conductance. These various symptoms shed light on the physical effects of ICT on users, the presence of which can indicate the presence of Technostress.
Techno Stress psychological symptoms include the inability to focus on a single issue, increased irritability, and a sense of loss of control. Technostress also has an impact on employee job satisfaction and commitment, as well as organizational outcomes (Sami & Pangannaiah, 2006).
To the best of our knowledge, there is a scarcity of studies on technostress among Egyptian university staff members. Thus, the purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of rapid technological development, particularly in the eld of education, on Egyptian university faculty members.

Sample and data:
A cross-sectional study was conducted from the rst of December 2020 to the end of February 2021 on a probability sample of Egyptian university academic staff members from Menou a University. The study included staff members who are a liated with practical and/or theoretical colleges and ful ll the inclusion criteria. A multistage random sample was used to select practical and theoretical colleges from Menou a University, then the second stage to select the departments in each selected college and nally staff members were chosen from each selected department by simple random sampling technique.
The sample size was calculated using the EPI 7 ™ info program (Dean, 1999) with a 95% con dence interval, a 5% margin of error, and a 10% prevalence of technostress among university academic staff (K.M, 2017). The minimum representative sample size was estimated to be 138, but this was increased to 150 to account for the non-response rate. A total number of 142 staff members responded, for a 94.7 % response rate.
The criteria for inclusion were: Egyptian staff members who are a liated to the selected departments of Menou a University for three years or more, have good English language skills, and agreed to participate.
Subjects with hormonal disorders such as Cushing syndrome or Addisonian disease, subjects on steroid therapy, females taking oral contraceptives, and subjects with known psychological disorders that could in uence the results of the technostress subscales were excluded from the study.

Measures of variables:
All participants were subjected to the following: 1-A predesigned self-administered questionnaire that included two main parts: The rst part Included : socio-demographic data such as age (in years), gender, residence, college specialty (practical or theoretical), and academic grade.
Questions about the presence of modern computers, good WIFI in the virtual work environment, and attendance at training ICT workshops. Modern computers were considered highly e cient computers with windows 7 or 10 and core i3 or higher. Good WIFI was considered as a continuous presence of online access at or above 25Mbps.

The second part included:
The survey tool is an adapted version of the techno-stress questionnaire that was developed by Tarfadar and his colleagues in the English language (Tarafdar et al., 2010a). It has three dimensions: 1-techno-overload: the feeling of increased workload due to ICTs (four items), 2-techno-invasion: the feeling of work entering into other areas of life due to ICTs leading to higher levels of family-to-work con ict (three items), and 3-techno-complexity: refers to the user's lack of con dence in using new technologies (four items). Responses to the statements were given on a ve-point Likert scale ranging from zero (strongly disagree) to four (strongly agree).
Validity and reliability of the three domains (techno-overload, techno-invasion, and techno-complexity) were tested by Ragu-Nathan and his colleagues (Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008) where they found it to be 0.82, 0.80, and 0.77 for each domain respectively that indicated internal consistency of the scale.
2-Blood Cortisol level measurement by Cobas e411 immunoassay analyzer (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany). Venous blood samples were withdrawn from each participant at a xed time of the day (9-12 am), to overcome diurnal variation of the cortisol level.
Data analysis: Data were tested for normality with the Wilks Shapero test. The student's t-test was used to compare quantitative variables of normally distributed data, while Mann Whitney's test was used for not normally distributed ones. Pearson correlation was used to test the correlation between two continuous normally distributed variables while Spearman correlation was used for not normally distributed ones. Multiple linear regressions were used to test the association between multiple possible risk factors and each component of the technical stress. Two-sided P-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically signi cant. All the analyses were done using SPSS V. 23 (SPSS Inc. Released 2015. IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 23.0, Armnok, NY: IBM Corp.).

Results
The study included 142 participants with full valid questionnaires. Their mean age was 36.32 ± 6.41 y (ranging from 25.0 to 60.0). Fifty-three % (75 participants) were males, 64.1% were of rural residence, 52.1% were working in practical colleges, 60.6% were lecturers or higher, 54.9% had training workshops/courses, 78.2% had good WIFI and 85.9% had modern computers (see table 1). Their mean cortisol level was 15.61 ± 7.07mcg/ dl (ranging from 6.0 to 29.0 mcg/dl).
Among the entire participants, the mean score (±SD) of work overload was 9.45 (±2.92) out of 15, the mean invasion score was 6.61 (±2.76 ) out of 12 and the mean complexity score was 12.47 (±4.20) out of 20.
Female participants, participants who were lecturers or higher grades, participants who did not have good WIFI or modern computers had signi cantly higher mean overload, invasion, and complexity than males or participants who were teaching assistants or up (P-value <0.001 for each).
Participants who are living in rural areas had a signi cantly higher overload and complexity scores than participants living in urban areas (P-value 0.002 and 0.001; respectively), while participants working in practical colleges had signi cantly higher mean invasion than participants in theoretical ones (P-value 0.004). Participants who did not attend training had signi cantly higher mean overload, invasion, and complexity than participants who had training (P-value 0.007, 0.021, <0.001). (see table 2).
Age had a signi cantly signi cant positive correlation with all three aspects of the technostress scale (p <0.001 for each) ( g 1).
The multivariate linear regression model showed that overload was signi cantly related to female gender and work environment with poor WIFI (P-value <0.001 and 0.002 respectively). the invasion was signi cantly related to the female gender, theoretical colleges, being lecturer or higher and poor WIFI (Pvalue 0.001, 0.023, 0.030 and 0.002 respectively) while complexity was signi cantly related to the female gender, rural residence, no training, poor WIFI and absence of modern computers (P-value <0.001, 0.014, <0.001, <0.001 and 0.001 respectively) ( Table 3). The three models were statistically signi cant (P <0.001 for each). The adjusted R2 was 0.482, 0.362 and, 0.705 for overload, invasion, and complexity respectively.
Blood cortisol level was found to be higher among participants with higher scores of the technostress subscales. It was signi cantly correlated with overload and complexity scores (P-value = 0.001 and <0.001 respectively) ( g 2).  Discussion COVID-19's global lockdown had impacted everyone's quality of life by disrupting their daily routines., students as an example, had higher levels of "perceived academic stress" and higher depressive symptoms (De Man et al., 2021;Vyas & Butakhieo, 2020).
Employees who work from virtual o ces can do their work anywhere at any time, which may blur the lines between work and home. As a result, workplace stress has been allowed to spread from traditional o ces to virtual o ces, potentially leading to fewer social interactions and poor communication (K.M, 2017;Stich, 2020) Participants in this study reported moderate to high levels of the technostress questionnaire's various subscales. Job overload had a mean score of 9/15, which was 60 % of the maximum overload score, followed by work complexity (57 %of the maximum score) and invasion (50 % of the max. score). Remote working was found to be strongly associated with the three technostress subscales by Molino and his colleagues. Work-family con ict on the one hand, and work overload on the three technostress subscales on the other, were found to have a strong positive association in their analysis. They also discovered a signi cant positive relationship between behavioral stress and workload, as well as technostress subscales and work-family con ict (Molino et al., 2020).
The higher levels of stress among employees who use ICT were explained by the constant availability of the individual, predicting quicker and better work (Ayyagari et al., 2011).
Technostress caused by virtual work is multifactorial. The induced technostress was caused by both personal and environmental risk factors. The multivariate analysis of our ndings revealed that gender and Wi quality both contributed signi cantly to all subscales of technostress. Other risk factors may differ depending on the subscale.
In our study, Senior participants with higher academic degrees were found to be signi cantly associated with higher levels of the three domains of technostress. In the study done by (Orlando, 2014), old-age teachers who have taken years in establishing their teaching practices suffered greatly to change them than the younger teachers. Also, (Tsertsidis et al., 2019) stated that older people have more negative attitudes towards the use of new technologies and feel less competent. Sahin and Coklar found that techno-stress increase with age (Şahin & Çoklar, 2009).
Female participants in this study reported higher technostress levels than males. This was also reported by (E lti & Naci Çoklar, 2019) and (Thomée et al., 2012) who found that women experience higher levels of anxiety and exhaustion than men in the use of ITC's. Liaw's study also indicated that males had more positive perceptions towards computers and Web technologies than females (Liaw, 2002). Broos survey revealed that males had less computer anxiety than females as they use computers for longer periods so they show less computer anxiety (Broos, 2005). Females' high technostress in our sample could be due to the fact that they have to care for their children and families when working from home during lockdown, which adds to their burden.
Even though industrialized areas in Italy had substantially higher COVID-19 infection and death rates (Coccia, 2021), participants in our study who lived in rural areas had higher levels of technostress. This may be explained by the rural areas' lack of resources. Poor Wi and recurrent interruptions of internet access will make it di cult to complete necessary tasks and create a stressful virtual work environment (Chuang et al., 2015).
Poor Wi-connection was signi cantly associated with higher levels of technostress. (K.M, 2017) stated that a slow internet network was considered a factor contributing to technostress.
Participants in practical colleges experienced signi cantly higher mean invasion technological stress than those in theoretical colleges. According to (Mishra et al., 2020), Because of the need for equation manipulation and laboratories, practical subjects have traditionally been di cult to teach online. This may also be due to educators' negative attitudes toward new technologies and tools. Educators also have limited time and patience to address minor technical issues throughout the process of adjustment to new tools.
Participants who did not attend technological training workshops had signi cantly higher mean overload, invasion, and complexity than participants who had. This was in agreement with (Tarafdar et al., 2007(Tarafdar et al., , 2010b who indicated that users with high levels of computer knowledge could avoid technostress to a larger degree. (Gaither Shepherd, n.d.) , concluded that computer skills in uenced technostress levels.
University support was considered an essential component of preparing teachers to use ICT effectively (Luchman & González-Morales, 2013). According to (Shedletsky & Aitken, 2001), teachers frequently avoid university supplies such as professional development workshops and technical seminars.
(K.M 2017) stated, that there was no statistically signi cant relationship between technostress and respondents' age group, gender, or attendance at technology-related training.
According to our study, Cortisol level was signi cantly higher with overload and complexity domains of technostress (P-value 0.001 and <0.001 respectively). (Riedl, 2012) found that cortisol levels increased signi cantly as a result of system breakdown in a human-computer interaction task. Also  revealed signi cantly elevated cortisol levels due to human interaction with ICT.
Recommendations: To ensure a technostress free work environment, the following measures should be considered: Set clear boundaries between working and non-working hours.
Create a separate working area in your home and stick to a strict schedule.
Employees should be motivated by positive reinforcement and reassured by positive messages.
Further research should take personality traits into account.

Conclusion
Technostress was prevalent among university staff members. Female participants, being lecturers or higher profession, not having rapid WIFI or modern computers were predictors of technostress.
Cross-sectional design was a limitation to our study as longitudinal studies will be needed to determine the causal relationship among these variables.
Another limitation was the negligence of the personality traits and considering the sociodemographic factors as the only factors that affect the level of technostress.