Traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol (Northern Italy, Southern Alps) – Biodiversity and use

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-36021/v2

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Traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol (Northern Italy, Southern Alps) – Biodiversity and use

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-36021/v2

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published 26 Nov, 2020

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Background: Worldwide mountain regions are recognized as hotspots of ethnopharmacologically relevant species diversity. In South Tyrol (Southern Alps, Italy), and due to the region’s high plant diversity and isolated population, a unique traditional botanical knowledge of medicinal plants has flourished, which traces its history back to prehistoric times. However, changes in rural life and culture may threaten this unique biodiversity and cultural heritage. Our study aims to collect and analyze information on native plants used in traditional folk medicine, focusing on the preservation of botanical and cultural diversity.

Methods: Data were collected through a review of published material that documents traditionally used medicinal plants of South Tyrol in order to capture the total diversity of plants and their usage. We evaluated different parameters, comprising the ethnobotanicity index (EI), ethnophytonomic index (EPI), relative frequency of citation (RFC), red list status, and regional legislation with regard to the plant species.

Results: A total of 276 species, including 3 mushrooms and 3 lichens, were identified. These belonged to 72 families, most frequently to the Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Lamiaceae. The most frequently cited species were Hypericum perforatum L., Urtica dioica L., and Plantago lanceolata L. According to 12 ICPC-2 disease categories, the most frequently treated human health symptoms were from the digestive and respiratory systems as well as the skin. A total of 27 species were listed as endangered, of which 16 are not protected and two are now already extinct. Among the 59 predominantly alpine species, 11 species are restricted to the high altitudes of the Alps and may be threatened by global warming.

Conclusions: Our research revealed that the ethnobotanical richness of South Tyrol is among the highest in Italy and throughout the Alps. Nevertheless, it is evident that biodiversity and traditional knowledge have been heavily eroded. Furthermore, we point out particularly sensitive species that should be reconsidered for stronger protections in legal regulations.

Translational Medicine

Ecosystem restoration

Human health

Nature conservation

Traditional ecological knowledge

Traditional medicine

Worldwide mountain regions are recognized as hotspots of ethnobotanical diversity with a high ethnopharmacological importance (e.g.[1–3]). Local species diversity and the historic isolation of mountain settlements lead to a unique ethnopharmacological knowledge that supports health care of local communities [4,5]. Biodiversity has always been of outmost importance for the provision and new discovery of medical substances [6]. However, an alarming loss of biodiversity is occurring, particularly in mountain regions as they are disproportionably vulnerable to land-use change [7,8] and climate change [2,9,10]. Rising temperatures force mountain plants to move upwards until they reach the highest elevations and become locally extinct (i.e. the ‘summit trap phenomenon’; e.g. [11]).

The current extinction rates of plant species are between 100 and 1000 times greater when compared to natural extinction rates and every two years our planet is losing at least one potential major medicinal plant [12]. This rapid rate of extinction and the resulting decline in biodiversity is caused by a combined impact of factors such as urbanization, the overexploitation of natural resources and the pollution of soil, water, and air [13]. Therefore, many international agreements explicitly stress the urgency to document and preserve the floristic and cultural diversity before it is lost (e.g., [14,15]).

As in other mountain regions in so called developed countries, changes in the culture and socio-economy of the European Alps in the 20^th century have led to the deterioration of much of the region’s traditional ecological knowledge (see e.g. [16]) and biodiversity [17,18]. Despite this process of erosion however, public interest in folk medicine has steadily increased in recent years, highlighting the importance of traditional ecological knowledge for promoting sustainable land management including organic farming, eco-tourism, and eco-gastronomy [19–21]. This can revitalize the relationship between man and nature and help preserving biodiversity and the local cultural heritage in the Alps.

Among the regions of the European Alps, South Tyrol (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) is one of the most interesting from an ethnobotanical standpoint. The interaction of a great floristic richness and a long-lasting cultural history has resulted in a unique ethnopharmacological knowledge within the local population, which can be traced back to prehistoric times [22,23]. Local literature documents the richness of medicinal plants and related traditional medicinal practices. To our knowledge, no scientific study has jointly addressed both, the ethnobotanical and ecological aspects of medicinal plants, from an interdisciplinary perspective.

Therefore, our study aims to close this gap by 1) compiling and analyzing existing ethnobotanical knowledge on traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol, 2) assessing the current state of the local diversity of medicinal plants and associated cultural heritage, and 3) highlighting local plant resources of particular interest for regional conservation and/or sustainable agriculture and eco-tourism activities.

Study area

The study area, the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol, is the most northern province of Italy and is situated in the Central Alps, south of the Alps’ main ridge (Fig. 1). The typical mountainous landscape of the region is highly heterogeneous [24] and covers around 7,400 km². About 40% of the land is above 2,000 m above sea level. Altitudes range from 194 m to a maximum of 3,893 m with the Ortler being the highest peak of South Tyrol.

The climate of South Tyrol is intermediate between mountain and Mediterranean climate, with a high relative sunshine duration and a low precipitation compared to the neighboring regions [27]. Over half of the area is forested, predominantly by spruce (Picea abies) and pine (Pinus sylvestris, P. cembra), accompanied by mixed forest with beech (Fagus sylvatica) and fir (Abies alba). One third of the region is covered by agricultural land and 14% by alpine grassland, glaciers, and rocky areas. Only 3% of the area is classified as settlement area [26]. Typically, the higher altitudes are sparsely populated, while the valleys are characterized by orchards (i.e. apple and grapes) and dense urban areas.

The South Tyrolean Alps harbor 2,169 native vascular plant species including many rare and endemic species of which about 25% are endangered and appear in the Red List [28,29]. Those plant species used for medicinal purposes are very popular in local narratives of the three different linguistic groups that coexist in the South Tyrol; Germans (69%), Italians (26%) and Ladine (5%; see Fig. 1; [26,30]). Prior to the 20th century, South Tyrol was characterized by secluded mountain farms and the local population was highly dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods. Native plants were the most important and often the only accessible form of medicine. Thus, over the centuries, unique medical traditions and a variety of vernacular names for medicinal plants developed [31].

In the 20th century, however, the social, political, and economic structure changed fundamentally and this led to significant ecological degradation and cultural erosion. In the first half of the century, the annexation of the region by Italy and related impacts left deep distortions in the cultural identity of the people [32]. In the 1970s, a rapid economic upswing led to drastic transformations of the social and economic systems in the region that were related to South Tyrol’s political claim of autonomy from Italy. Changes in land use, both the abandonment of mountain pastures and the intensification in the valleys, combined with socioeconomic and environmental processes (tourism, urbanization, pollution, etc.), have dramatically deteriorated the culture and natural environment [22,32,33].

Data collection

Following the PRISMA guidelines [34], we conducted a qualitative review of all publications written in English on alpine medicinal species in the Web of Science by using keywords that cover the medicinal and alpine species (see Appendix A for details). The advanced keyword search (last update March 2020) in the Web of Science revealed 149 references related to medicinal alpine species in the ‘topic’ or ‘title’ fields, more than the 80% (125) have been published since 2008. Numerous papers focus on geographical regions that were not relevant to our study (e.g. India, Nepal, China, USA, Pakistan, Denmark); thus, we filtered the results and kept 31 articles from Alpine European countries such as Italy, Switzerland, Austria, France, Germany and neighboring alpine regions. In a first step, we screened the titles and abstracts of the remaining articles and eliminated articles that are not related to our topic (10; e.g. genetic surveys or physiological studies of one species). We retined two ethnoveterinarian studies [35,36] for the next step of the review process. Second, we eliminated any articles that lacked access to a full text version and sent requests to the authors of the most relevant ones. Third, we conducted a full text review of the remaining 21 articles in order to gather relevant information. The whole process was conducted independently by two reviewers who jointly reported a synthesis in Appendix A. Data on medicinal plants of the Alps are mainly based on interviews of local (mostly elderly) people (Appendix A, [22-24]).

As scientific literature in Web of Science mostly did not cover our study region, we reviewed other published and unpublished material through local library research and through recommendations from local medicinal herb experts. In so doing, we documented traditionally used medicinal plants of South Tyrol in order to capture the total diversity of plants and usages in our study area. Almost all literature was published between 1988 and 2018, including books for the non-expert public and other documents that focused exclusively on the medical usage of plants of local relevance. Thus, the literature covers the period of the upcoming herbal medicine trend in the 1990s and is based mainly on reviving knowledge from old folk medicinal practices (Appendix A). The widespread use of popular books that sometimes lack a certain scientific rigor, however, but reflects the knowledge base of local communities that in other studies was addressed by semi-structured interviews (Appendix A; [31]). This knowledge was passed on from parents to children, often from mothers to daughters. The current increasing interest in medicinal species today, however, cannot rely on the exchange between the generations and often relies on popular science books and websites about medicinal herbs and medicinal plants. Physicians and pharmacists who are interested in herbal remedies often use recognized textbooks as important sources of information about herbs [37]. Altogether, 17 sources were used, including 16 books and one unpublished work (see Appendix A). The 17 sources were comprised of three types: 1) cultural literature (n = 7), 2) prescription books (n = 9), and 3) scientific manuscripts (n = 2; [31], Appendix A, 42). Furthermore, the level of originality of literature was classified into three categories: 1) original information based on interviews or authors’ expert knowledge (n = 7), 2) secondary literature that compiled information from the local literature (n = 8), and 3) a mix of both (n = 3; see details in Appendix A).

Plant species given in the references and their nomenclature where vetted through the online platform “Flora Fauna Südtirol” [38] for vascular plants, the “Information System on Italian Lichens” [39], and the Italian Mycological Association [40]. Finally, the nomenclature was standardized according to "The Plant List" [41]. Data acquired for each plant species included vernacular names, plant parts used, use categories, medicinal use, temporal changes in use, the pharmacological or phytochemical evidence on medicinal use, cultivation, natural habitat as well as endangerment and protection status. Vernacular names are important in the ethnobotanical cosmos as medicinal plants are known, collected and traded as products with local names in folk taxonomies (e.g. [42,43]).

Data analysis

We assessed the total diversity and various uses of medicinal plants by reviewing their general usage and the procurement of species, medicinal use of species, as well as pharmacological or phytochemical evidence for the medicinal healing effect of species. We recorded a number of citations per species (Fig.3). These parameters were highlighted from both the ecological and cultural perspective. Species diversity comprises the number of used species, botanical and fungal families, growth forms, and altitudinal habitat range. We recorded usage and procurement of species, the (plant) parts most frequently used, whether the plant is collected in the wild or cultivated, as well as whether the plant is used often or has been abandoned. The general use possibilities were grouped into 1) medicinal use, 2) alimentary, 3) veterinary, 4) spiritual, 5) cosmetic, and 6) domestic (Table 1).

We compared the variation of the number of citations, vernacular names, use versatility and number of medicinal uses between wild and cultivated species; between species with different protection status (i.e. non, partially protected and protected); between species of different Red List categories (e.g. extinct, extinct in the wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, nearly threatened, least concern); between different growth forms (i.e. herbs or woody species) and pharmacological or phytochemical evidence of medicinal effects (i.e. positive or negative effect and not investigated). We used the Kruskal-Wallis H test followed by the Dunn post-hoc test. We also conducted statistical analyses with the open-source software package R, version 3.3.2 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria).

We sorted and categorized medicinal plant use and ailments treated according to the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) [44]. By doing so, we differentiated between 12 disease categories (Table 3). Based on [45], the ICPC categories are more suitable for ethnopharmacological studies than other classifications. Pharmacological or phytochemical evidence of the medicinal healing effect of plant substances and medicinal products was determined by monographs from the German Commission E [46] and of the European Medicines Agency (EMA; [47]). These categories are also in line with many ethnobotanical studies, as previously reported by [48].

For our quantitative analysis, we calculated the ethnobotanicity index (EI: percentage of useful plants from the total flora of the region; see [49] and the ethnophytonomic index (EPI: ratio between reported plants with vernacular names and the total flora of the studied region; see [50]). The latter indicates the richness of people’s knowledge of local plants.

Qualitative and quantitative characterization of medicinal species

We named a maximum of 155, a minimum of 18, and an average of 72 plant species per source. On average, the prescription books (mean 72) mentioned more plant species than the books on regional history (mean 60). Four of the 17 references are dated to before 2000, while 13 were published after 2000. Thus, the number of books on the topic after 2000 has tripled. This increase reflects the new social trend of herbal remedy use [51].

We identified a total of 275 native medicinal species that are used (Appendix C), including 204 herbs, 28 trees, 28 shrubs, 9 ferns, 3 mushrooms, and 3 lichens. The species belonged to 72 families, of which Asteraceae, with 32 species, was most frequent, followed by Rosaceae (25), Lamiaceae (18), Apiaceae (15), and Brassicaceae (10). For mushrooms, it was Fomitopsidaceae and for lichens Parmeliaceae. About 21% (59 species) of all species are classified as biogeographically Alpine while the remaining species have a cosmopolitan character. The species most frequently cited in our literature sources were Hypericum perforatum and Urtica dioica (cited in more than 90% of used sources) followed by Plantago lanceolata (cited in more than 85% of used sources; Table 3). 211 plants were collected in the wild, while 64 plants were cultivated in traditional home gardens or on agricultural land. The plant parts most frequently mentioned in literature for their potential use were leaves (41%), flowers and buds (28%) as well as bulbs and roots (17%). Less commonly used were fruits (7%), bark and resin (5%), and seeds (2%).

At least 17 plant species were reported to be no longer used in South Tyrol (i.e. Artemisia vulgaris; Euphrasia officinalis; Galium verum; Pimpinella saxifraga; Adiantum capillus-veneris; Botrychium lunaria; Sedum roseum; Fomitopsis betulina; Polygala chamaebuxus; Viola biflora; Mutellina adonidifolia; Primula matthioli; Primula auricula; Antennaria dioica; Biscutella laevigata; Beckwithia glacialis; Silene vulgaris). In terms of health benefits, among these species there are only two species (Antennaria dioica, Euphrasia officinalis) with negative effects and one species (Mutellina adonidifolia) with a positive effect that has been proven by pharmacological or phytochemical evidence. There are no studies available for 80% of the species that are no longer used. All of the species are wild and 76% are herbs. Four species (Adiantum capillus-veneris, Botrychium lunaria, Primula auricula and Primula matthioli) are protected species, Adiantum capillus-veneris, Primula matthioli and the mushroom Fomitopsis betulina are classified as vulnerable or nearly threatened species at the Red List (Table 3).

We found that use versatility was high among the recorded species (see Appendix C). In addition to medicinal applications, 46% of the species were also used in alimentary settings, 25% for veterinary purposes, 20% for spirituality and cults, 16% as cosmetics, and 16% for domestic purposes (Table 1). The species with the highest versatility (i.e. 5 out of the 6 above-mentioned purposes) were the perennial herbs Alchemilla xanthochlora, Artemisia absinthium, Equisetum arvense, Hypericum perforatum, Lilium bulbiferum, Urtica dioica, and Valeriana officinalis, the dwarf shrub Thymus pulegioides, and the woody species Betula pendula, Corylus avellana, Quercus petraea, Q. pubescens, Q. robur, and Sambucus nigra (Fig.3). About one third of the species (34%) were reported for their exclusive use in only one of the categories while another third (31%) were used for two purposes, 19% for three, and 10% for four different purposes. The so-called Heublumen (“hay flowers”) mix is a blend of flowers, seeds, smaller leaves, and stem pieces of various mowed grassland plants.

Table 1: Use versatility of traditional medicinal plants of South Tyrol.

Use type	Count	Most frequent plant families	Examples of plant species
Medicine	276	Asteraceae, Roseaceae	Arnica montana, Hypericum perforatum, Equisetum arvense, Peucedanum ostruthium, Plantago lanceolata, Sambucus nigra
Alimentary	128	Roseaceae	Gentiana lutea, Juniperus communis, Pinus cembra, Rosa canina, Sambucus nigra, Thymus pulegioides
Veterinary	70	Asteraceae	Cetraria islandica, Dryopteris filix-mas, Geranium robertianum, Larix decidua Leontopodium nivale, Peucedanum ostruthium
Spiritual	55	Asteraceae	Arnica montana, Crataegus monogyna, Peucedanum ostruthium, Hypericum perforatum, Juniperus communis, Salix alba, Sambucus nigra
Cosmetics	44	Asteraceae	Betula pendula, Leontopodium nivale, Matricaria chamomilla, Pinus mugo, Urtica dioica, Trifolium repens
Domestic	43	Fagaceae, Pinaceae and Rubiaceae	Betula pendula, Equisetum arvense, Fraxinus excelsior, Galium aparine, Larix decidua, Malva sylvestris, Pinguicula alpina

Plants were most frequent used for the digestive system, skin, and for the respiratory system. These medicinal applications also included the highest number of useful plants (Table 2). Other relevant remedies included general and non-specific disorders (11%), the musculoskeletal system (10%), the urinary tract (8%), as well as the neurological and circulatory system (both 8%). Fewer plant species were used to treat disorders of pregnancy and childbirth, or for family planning (5%). Even fewer were used to treat disorders of the eye (3%), the endocrine system, the nutritional system and metabolism (3%), or for psychological issues (2%). A very high percentage of plants (70%) were used as multi-contextual remedies for several disorders (2–5 categories). The remaining species (14%) were useful in more than five categories and thus were often referred to as universal remedies (in German: “Allheilmittel” or “Heil aller Schäden”). Among these we found Equisetum arvense, Juniperus communis, and Peucedanum ostruthium (Table 1).

Table 2: Medicinal use spectrum of traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol, classified into 12 human disorder categories based on the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) [44]. The category nutraceuticals is based on plants that have been reported as either being eaten or consumed as a beverage for their medicinal use.

Disorders	Plants	Most frequent plant families	Examples of plant species	Nutraceutical food plants
Digestive	152	Asteraceae	Achillea millefolium, Centaurirum erythraea, Gentiana lutea, Peucedanum ostruthium	91
Skin	133	Asteraceae	Chelidonium majus, Equisetum arvense, Hypericum perforatum, Plantago spp.	65
Respiratory	128	Asteraceae	Cetraria islandica, Primula glutinosa, Pimpinella saxifraga, Pinus mugo	73
General and unspecified	102	Asteraceae	Arnica montana, Pinus cembra, Pimpinella major, Thymus pulegioides	63
Musculoskeletal	93	Asteraceae	Arnica montana, Larix decidua, Potentilla anserina, Stachys sylvatica, Symphytum officinale	43
Urology	80	Asteraceae	Achillea moschata, Alchemilla alpina, Juniperus communis	45
Neurological	76	Asteraceae	Crataegus monogyna, Humulus lupulus, Hypericum perforatum	34
Cardiovascular	74	Rosaceae	Achillea millefolium, Allium spp., Crataegus monogyna, Leonurus cardiaca, Viscum album	51
Pregnancy, childbirth, family planning	49	Asteraceae	Adiantum capillus-veneris, Artemisia vulgaris, Geranium robertianum	33
Eye	29	Orobanchaceae	Daucus carota, Euphrasia spp., Pimpinella saxifraga,	14
Endocrine/ Metabolic and Nutritional	26	Rosaseae	Cichorium intybus, Taraxacum campylodes	19
Psychological	19	Equisetaceae and Rosaseae	Melissa officinalis, Pinus cembra, Valeriana officinalis, Sedum roseum	17

For 42% of the recorded species (N=111), we found evidence of their medicinal significance in the German database [46]. For 79 of these species, the medicinal purpose has been validated, while for 33 it was rejected. This means that these 33 species are not curative or have severe and even toxic side effects when used. In the European database [47] the medicinal significance of 57 species (21%) were assessed, 215 (78%) were not listed and 3 species (1%) were registed that their medicinal significance was under discussion.

Species with a higher number of citations (cf) and vernacular names (vn) in folk medicinal literature, as well as more use versatility (uv), or a greater number of medicinal uses (mu) have been subjected to scientific studies that have proven positive effects more often (Kruskal-Wallis Chi²_cf =63.5, p_cf<0.0001; Chi²_vn =25.1, p_vn=<0.0001; Chi²_uv =22.9, p_uv<0.0001; Chi²_mu =33.2, p_mu<0.0001; see Fig. 2). However, the majority (59%) of native South Tyrolean medicinal species remains understudied.

We found a total of 714 vernacular names used in traditional South Tyrolean folk medicine that referred to 276 actual species (Appendix B). 37 of them were quoted with one vernacular name and a few species even had more than 10 names – for example, 17 names for Achillea millefolium, Hypericum perforatum, and Juniperus communis and 18 names were found for Alchemilla xanthochlora (e.g. “Frauenhilf”, women's help, herb to treat gynecological disorders) and Arnica montana (e.g. “Donnerblüml”, thunder flower, protection from thunderstorms or “Wundkräutl”, wound herb, herb for wound treatment) (Fig.3 and Appendix B, C). For 66 species, no local names were indicated.

Frequency of citation in folk medicinal literature (cf), number of vernacular names (vn), or number of medicinal uses (mu) are not related to the growth form of the species (Kruskal-Wallis Chi²_cf =7.6, p_cf=0.270; Chi²_vn =4.4, p_vn=0.622; Chi²_mu =9.5, p_mu=0.149). Woody species have a significant higher number of use versatility (uv; Chi²_uv =29.1, p_uv<0.001***; see Fig. 5).

Ethnobotanicity (EI) and ethnophytonomic index (EPI)

2,169 vascular species are native to South Tyrol [28]. Considering the large number of vernacular names for the medicinal plants in the local flora, the calculated EPI (0.102) indicates that popular knowledge about native plants was very rich. The EI for medicinal plants was 12%, thus about every eighth plant of the local flora is used in folk medicine.

Assessment of vulnerability

According to the regional Red List [29], a total of 24 species are listed as endangered, including one that is critically endangered (Mentha pulegium), four endangered (Cyanus segetum, Dipsacus fullonum, Marrubium vulgare, and Rosa montana), 9 vulnerable, and 11 nearly threatened species (Table 4). Two species (Eryngium amethystinum and Eryngium campestre) were listed as extinct. With regard to the protection status, we found that about 95 of the medicinal species (35%) were under the protection status of the regional legislation (Table 4). Of those, 19 species (7%) were strictly protected, while five (Abies alba, Arnica montana, Gentiana lutea, Lycopodium clavatum, and Ruscus aculeatus) were under partial protection, meaning that permission for extraction from nature or use can be granted through exceptions issued by the regional authority.

Table 3: Endangered and protected medicinal plants species used in traditional folk medicine in the region of South Tyrol according to [29]. * = protected, and ** = partially protected. See complete list in Appendix C.

Red-List Status	Count	Species
Extinct	2	Eryngium amethystinum, Eryngium campestre
Critically endangered	1	Cetraria islandica, Mentha pulegium, Usnea barbata
Endangered	4	Cyanus segetum, Dipsacus fullonum, Marrubium vulgare, and Rosa montana, Usnea dasypoga
Vulnerable	8	Adiantum capillus-veneris, Allium ursinum, Gentiana lutea*, Hyoscyamus niger, Ilex aquifolium, Anacamptis morio, Primula matthioli, Quercus robur*
Near threatened	11	Althaea officinalis, Centaurium erythraea, Drosera rotundifolia, Galega officinalis, Leonurus cardiaca, Lilium bulbiferum, Malva alcea Menyanthes trifoliata, Nasturtium officinale, Nepeta cataria, Salix pentandra*
Least concern	238	Abies alba*, Aquilegia einseleana, Arnica montana*, Botrychium lunaria, Cyclamen purpurascens, Gentiana acaulis, Gentiana punctata, Lilium martagon, Lycopodium clavatum*, Primula auricula, Primula elatior, Primula glutinosa, Primula veris, Primula vulgaris, Anemone vernalis, Ruscus aculeatus*
Data deficient	2	Alchemilla alpina, Alchemilla xanthochlora
Not evaluated	11	Aesculus hippocastanum, Fomitopsis officinalis, Lamium galeobdolon, Heracleum sphondylium, Lepidium sativum, Piptoporus betulinus, Ribes petraeum

Frequency of citation in folk medicinal literature (cf), use versatility (uv) or number of medicinal uses (mu) are not related to the protection status of the species (Kruskal-Wallis Chi²_cf =2.8, p_cf=0.224; Chi²_vn =2.2, p_vn=0.331; Chi²_mu =3.7, p_mu=0.158). Non-protected species have significantly more vernacular names (vn; Chi²_uv =7.4, p_uv=0.024*; see Fig. 5E). Frequency of citation in folk medicinal literature (cf), number of vernacular names (vn), use versatility (uv), or number of medicinal uses (mu) are not related to the status of the species on the local Red List (Kruskal-Wallis Chi²_cf =6.6, p_cf=0.471; Chi²_vn =8.9, p_vn=0.263; Chi²_uv =8.2, p_uv=0.316; Chi²_mu =13.2, p_mu=0.067).

Out of the 276 medicinal plants, about 59 species (21% of all native medicinal species) can be phytogeographically considered to be alpine (Table 4). However, some of those (e.g., Arnica montana and Vaccinium vitis-idaea) can also be found at lower elevations. In our study, we identified at least ten medicinal species that are restricted to the upper alpine zone (> 2600 m a.s.l.) which are the perennial herbs Achillea atrata, Achillea moschata, Dryas octopetala, Geum reptans, Hieracium intybaceum, Leucanthemopsis alpina, Beckwithia glacialis, Silene acaulis, and Veronica alpina and the woody species Salix serpyllifolia.

Table 4: Medicinal species in South Tyrol that are predominately alpine according to [52] and with the altitudinal range alp = alpine, sniv = sub-nival, suba = sub-alpine, mont = montane, and coll = colline; in bold = predominantly alpine occurrence (according to [22])

Altitudinal range	Count	Plant species
alp- sniv	5	Achillea atrata, Achillea moschata, Geum reptan, Beckwithia glacialis, Veronica alpina
Alp	2	Dryas octopetala, Silene acaulis
suba-sniv	3	Leucanthemopsis alpina, Hieracium intybaceum, Salix serpyllifolia
suba-alp	14	*Aconitum napellus, Alchemilla alpina, Allium victorialis, Artemisia mutelliana, Cetraria islandica, Erigeron alpinus, Geum montanum*, Juniperus communis var. saxatilis, Mutellina adonidifolia, Primula glutinosa, Anemone vernalis, Rhododendron ferrugineum, Sempervivum montana, Thlaspi rotundifolium
mont-alp	20	Achillea clavennae, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Arnica montana, Clinopodium alpinum, Gentiana acaulis, Gentiana luta, Gentiana punctate, Leontopodium nivale, Peucedanum ostrium, Pinus cembra, alpina, Potentilla aurea, Primula auricula, Rumex alpinus, Sedum atratum, Sempervivum tectorum, Soldanella alpina, Vaccinum myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Viola biflora
mont-suba	6	Botrychium lunaria, Chenopodium bonus-henricus, Erica carnea, Pinus mugo, Rosa pendulina, Veratrum album
coll-alp	5	Antennaria dioica, Biscutella laevigata, Globularia cordifolia, Parnassia palustris, Primula farinose
coll-suba	4	*Calluna Vulgaris, Carlina acualis, Polygala chamaebuxus, Thymus pulegioides*

South Tyrol as a hotspot of traditional medicinal plants

Our study explores the local pharmacopoeia of South Tyrol, a region which has thus far been poorly investigated in ethnopharmacological studies when compared to neighboring regions [53–55].

Herbs dominate South Tyrolian medicinal species, followed by woody species. Ferns, mushrooms and lichens are less frequently used (Appendix C). Woody species have a higher overall use versatility when compared to herbs (Fig. 5F) which is related to the variety of plant parts used such as leaves, bark, roots or flowers.

Similar to other studies on traditional medicinal plant use (e.g. Appendix. A [22,23]), the South Tyrolian species are predominately cosmopolitan, only 20% are alpine (Table 4). Biogeographically, 16 of the 20 most cited plants are also found in other parts of Europe, while four grew only in alpine areas. 35% of the medicinal species are classified as threatened or protected species (Table 3). In general, non-protected species are of higher importance for medicinal or veterinarian use than protected species (Fig. 4E). Cultivated medicinal species are dominant and thus, in contrast to other more pristine mountain regions (e.g. [56] in Himalaya or [57] in Ethiopian Highlands), overexploitation is not a current issue in South Tyrol. This has also been reported for other regions with long phytomedicinal traditions (e.g [58] from Central China or [59] from the Balkan Mountains). However, extinction processes due to overharvesting may already have run their course in the Alps. Medicinal species that are currently in use mainly grow in the bottom of valleys rather than at high alpine zones [22].

12% of all South Tyrolean species are used in traditional folk medicine. This proportion ranks among the highest in the European alpine regions and is similar to the Basque country and the neighboring Swiss region of Prättigau. The proportion is twice as high as in the Albanian Alps (Table 6). The ethnobotanicy index for South Tyrol is higher than in other mountain regions of Italy and demonstrates a broad local knowledge of medicinal species. Thus, despite land use changes and industrialization processes, local ethnopharmacological heritage is still being preserved among elders and inhabitants of rural areas (e.g. [31]) and in popular science books (Appendix A). South Tyrol's EI is similar to the global average value for medicinal plants (12%) see [60].

A high number of vernacular names for medicinal species underlines that popular knowledge of medicinal plants in South Tyrol is still well consolidated (Fig.3; Appendix B). However, the generally lower IE values in some regions (Table 5) may indicate a more rapid process of cultural erosion and a loss of ethnopharmacological knowledge [61,62]. Ethnobotanical studies on wild and cultivated plants used as food and medicine by the other ethnic minority in the Alps reported, that traditional knowledge on plant names and uses was limited to the older generations (Appendix, [22,23]).

When estimated by the rarely used ethnophytonomic index (EPI 0.10), popular knowledge of wild species is widespread, exceeds the previously reported value for Sondrio (0.06; [3]), and is comparable to the Central Alps (0.10; [54]).

Table 5: Overview of various ethnobotanical studies of mountain regions in Europe. MP = Medicinal plants; (EI) = Ethnobotanicity index

Reference	Country / Region	Study area	Number of species		EI	Source
			Total flora	MP
[61]	Central- southern Italy (Molise)	378 km²	ca. 800	70	6.0 %	54 Informants
[63]	Eastern Italian Alps (Friuli- Venezia Giulia)	5,700 km²	ca. 3335	177	5.3 %	n.d. Informants
[53]	Western Italian Alps (Liguria)	86 km²	ca. 1500	105	7.0 %	65 Informants
[54]	Northern Italian Alps (Lombardy)	896 km²	ca. 2185	184	8.4 %	328 Informants
Present Study	Northern Italian Alps (South Tyrol)	7,400 km²	ca. 2169	275	12.0 %	17 Literature sources (a.o. 81 informants in [31])
[48]	North-west Spain (Basque Country)	802 km²	ca. 1133	139	12.3 %	207 Informants
[64]	Albanian Alps (Kosovo)	3,500 km²	ca. 1609	98	6.1 %	91 Informants
[65]	Eastern Switzerland (Prättigau)	610 km²	ca. 1414	204	14.4 %	91 Informants

By comparing the 20 most cited plants with those that had the most vernacular names, we can observe two general trends. Firstly, 10 of the most cited plants were not among the top 20 plants with the most vernacular names but they have become popular nowadays, e.g. Matricaria chamomilla, Plantago lanceolata, Rosa canina, and Urtica dioica. The high popularity of these species in the region may be attributed to the fact that they appear in most phytotherapy books. Secondly, the 20 plants with the most vernacular names include a higher number of alpine plants (7), which is typical for the alpine environment of the study area, e.g. Carlina acaulis, Leontopodium nivale, and Peucedanum ostruthium. The count of local names is more likely to reflect the original medicinal plants, whereas the most cited plants probably also represent modern plants adapted by knowledge transfer, i.e. neighbors, books, and seminars. Thus, the list of plants with the most vernacular names may be the better scale for evaluating the traditional importance of a plant (Fig.3 and Appendix B and C).

The high number of vernacular names per species (Appendix B) also illustrates the linguistic diversity of our study area, which is represented by the three official languages: German, Italian, and Ladin and manifold local dialects [66]. Overall, the findings from both indices reinforce the assumption that is highlighted in the ethnobotanical survey from [22], that traditional ethnobotanical knowledge is prevalent and well documented in the popular literature while the number of traditionally used species in the area is high.

Established herbal pharmacopoeias conserve local knowledge on medicinal species and function as profound repositories for buried knowledge that is currently assisting the revitalization of natural medicine. As a concequence, a variety of drugs that are derived from plants that were known to ancient civilizations and used throughout the millennia are today being included in modern pharmacotherapy [67].

Our analysis revealed that the use and subsequent abandonment of 17 species in South Tyrol is not linked to new pharmacological or phytochemical evidence on potential negative health effects or due to species conservation measures (protection or Red List status, Fig.5). Moreover, there is limited scientific evidence on medicinal effects. Only 41% of the species, namely the most frequently cited species, have been explored by pharmacological studies in terms of their effects (Fig.4).

Considering the most frequent families to which the medicinal plants belong (Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Lamiaceae), our results were in high accordance with similar studies in European Alpine areas [3,53–55]. The dominance of Asteraceae in local pharmacological literature worldwide has hitherto been emphasized (e.g. [68,69]). With regard to the most frequently quoted species, there was a general agreement between our results and other studies from Northern Italy. In particular, the species Achillea moschata, Achillea millefolium, Arnica montana, Urtica dioica, and Thymus pulegioides were highly valued throughout all regions [3,53–55,70]. Interestingly, the third most cited plant, Plantago lanceolata, was used only rarely or not at all in other northern Italian regions. Instead, the closely related P. major is used, which, while morphologically distinct, has similar medicinal properties [3,55,70]. Also, the two frequently cited plants, Equisetum arvense and Juniperus communis, appeared to be of minor importance in other northern Italian regions.

We observed a high overall use versatility in South Tyrol (Fig.3). As was reported in other alpine areas [53,54,70], in South Tyrol the most frequent therapeutic uses, and the uses that accounted for the highest number of plants, were for digestive, respiratory and integumentary systems (Table 2).

The majority (59%) of native South Tyrolean medicinal plants remain understudied by medicine and pharmacology. However, considering the success rate (> 70%) of previously investigated plants (111) for which the traditional uses have been validated (79) we get an idea of the large unlocked phytotherapeutic and economic potential of as yet unexplored plants. In particular, the healing properties of the following largely unexplored plants should be analyzed, i.e. the highly quoted species Peucedanum ostruthium (wound healing, anti-inflammatory, digestive, and respiratory properties), Juniperus communis (antiseptic and for genitourinary problems), Alchemilla sp. and Achillea sp. (gynecology), Allium ursinum (cardiovascular, skin, digestion, and respiration), Campanula rotundifolia (borreliosis), Dryopteris filix-mas (antirheumatic and wound healing), Euphrasia sp. (antibacterial and anti-inflammatory for eye and respiration), Geranium robertianum (genitourinary, wound healing and infertility), Larix decidua (wound healing and disinfectant), Pinus mugo (expectorant), Sempervivum tectorum (wound healing), Stachys sylvatica (wound-healing and digestion), and Veronica officinalis (respiration, digestion and musculoskeletal). A few almost exclusive uses were also found in the study area that, to our knowledge, have not been documented before in other Alpine areas. An example of an undocumented plant is of the Geranium robertianum, the flower and leaves of which are used in a tea to help with fertility issues [71]. Another is the use of Botrychium lunaria as an abortifacient [72].

Our results revealed a strong association between food and medicinal uses of the plants, including 128 aromatic or food related species (46.5% of all mentioned species) from over 50 families (Table 1). The most beneficial effects were on digestive, respiratory, skin, and general and unspecific disorders (Table 2). In fact, considering the increasing importance attributed to nutrition on human health maintenance, both therapeutic or prophylactic [73,74], these plants could be of high relevance for the development of nutraceuticals [20]. This may be of particular interest to local sustainability projects that focus on local foods, eco-gastronomy, and organic farming. Examples include juice made from Sambucus nigra berries with antiviral and antimicrobial effects [75,76], jam made out of Rosa canina fruits as a supplement of vitamin C [77], or Thymus sp. as spice with antibacterial effects [78]. Further research is needed to determine the nutritional and chemical compounds as well as safety for the commercialization of these exceptional food sources.

Traditional medicinal plants for the conservation of nature and cultural heritage

For some years, there has been an emerging interest in the use of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge and plant resources [60]. While in the past, medicinal plants were mainly used for home consumption, the cultivation and use of medicinal plants has become a growing market niche in South Tyrol in the last few decades . We recorded at least 21 farms where the main income source was herb production [79], and several gastronomy and hotel businesses that offered seasonal dishes or wellness and recreation programs based on traditional plants and practices [80]. In fact, the commercial use of herbal plants seems to offer numerous positive effects for the economic and ecological sustainability of South Tyrol, i.e. i) the diversification of agricultural production, ii) the maintenance of rural economies, iii) the establishment of local value chains, iv) the preservation of traditional land-use types (e.g., larch meadows or semi-arid grasslands; [81]) through extensive and ecologically oriented farming systems, v) the maintenance of an important source of food supply for insects, and vi) the preservation and revitalization of local identities, with a likely positive effect on biodiversity conservation.

Considering the positive market prospects for herbal products, with annual growth rates between 8–15 % in Europe, North America, and Asia [82], traditional knowledge and plant resources offer a support for local economies. In this context, the various edible and medicinal plants identified in this study could provide opportunities for further diversification of mountain agriculture. Nevertheless, traditional medicinal plants still lack recognition as an economic factor in South Tyrol. Therefore, further research on agro-ecology, nutrition, bioactivity, and safety are highly important for the commercialization of tradition medicinal plants [21].

Many medicinal plants in the study area were threatened by anthropogenic and natural factors. Our analysis showed that 238 of the medicinal plant species (86%) were abundant, whereas 24 species (9%) were very rare and placed under the category of “conservation concern” on the regional Red List [29] (Table 4). Land-use changes, overexploitation, and climate change are considered to be the most serious threats to medicinal plants in Alpine regions [2,19,60]. Biodiversity in the Alps is closely linked to the interaction between the natural environment and traditional human practices [33]. The changes in social, touristic, and agricultural systems in the last decades led to a substantial conversion of land-use systems. This includes the intensification of land use in easily accessible areas [83] as well as the abandonment of traditional practices in remote areas that results in a decrease of species diversity and abundance [81,84]. Consequently, along with the decrease in biodiversity, the abundance of medicinal plants is also affected [6]. In South Tyrol, the abandonment of alpine meadows and pastures along with the related expansion of areas of shrubs and trees has led to a decline of several heliophilous grassland species such as Arnica montana and Centaurium erythraea [85]. Moreover, many medicinal plants (e.g. Carlina acualis, Gentiana acaulis, Anemone vernalis) that flourish in poor soils have been affected by increased nutrient input caused by fertilization [81].

Unsustainable exploitation of wild collected species is a well-known effect of booming markets with rising demands [60]. In addition, for South Tyrol, an increasing pressure on wild species has been reported by T. Wilhalm (pers. comm., Sept. 24, 2019). However, a closer look at the life forms and plant parts harvested, reveals that not all species are equally affected by collection pressure. Root harvesting as a common practice in South Tyrol can be a severe threat to some rare medicinal plant species. Among root-harvested plants, we identified 6 particularly endangered species, three of which are under protection, two that are unprotected (Dipsacus fullonum and Althaea officinalis), and one species (Eryngium campestre) that is already extinct (Table 4). These threatened but unprotected plants should be re-considered and introduced into the South Tyrolean legislation.

Global warming and the associated upward migration of vegetation has become a major threat to specialized Alpine plants, particular those that inhabit the alpine-nivale altitudinal zones (> 2600 m a.s.l.) [22,86]. Based on the GLORIA project data set, [22] concluded that for South Tyrol, with its highest peaks at almost 4,000 m a.s.l., most plants can continue to invade higher elevations and, thus, the risk of extinction seems to be low. However, [22] identified two species (Artemisia genipi and Primula glutinosa) that are restricted to the upper Alpine zone and therefore might not be able to migrate further upward. Based on the same methodology, but with a larger data set, we identified at least 10 additional medicinal plant species that are restricted to the upper Alpine zone and therefore might be endangered by warming, at least locally (Table 5). In the foreseeable future, this could be the case in the Sella/Latemar region, for example, or the Texel group where the highest summits do not exceed 3,200 m and the elevation distance between upper alpine and highest summit is less than 600 m a.s.l. On the other hand, however, some endangered medicinal plants such as the thermophilous species Marrubium vulgare may also benefit from warming.

This study recorded the use of 275 traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol. The values of EPI and EI show that ethnobotanical knowledge and plant diversity in the area were among the highest in Italy and the European Alps. Our results show a loss of local traditional knowledge and plants in the region, where over 85 of medicinal plants are listed in the regional Red List. On the other hand, the renewed interest in natural medicine has transformed the use of traditional medicinal plants into a new market niche for mountain agriculture in South Tyrol. Vulnerable but unprotected plant species should be reconsidered and introduced into the South Tyrolean legislation or addressed by ecosystem restoration measures. Furthermore, several plant species that are highly valued in local folk medicine remain understudied within medicine and pharmacology and could thus provide a starting point for further studies that may lead to the discovery of new molecules and opportunities for the diversification of mountain agriculture. The conservation and cultivation of traditional medicinal plants as well as the conservation and restoration of their habitats could provide new services for society and for land use and thus contribute to the population's wellbeing and ecologically sustainable development.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions on a previous version of this manuscript. We are grateful to Thomas Wilhalm of the Nature Museum South Tyrol (Bolzano, N Italy). We thank Sylvia Butenschön (Technische Universität Berlin) for providing the photos in Fig. 1 for this publication and Owen Lyons for improving the English.

Authors' contributions

JP designed the study, performed a literature review on ethnobotany (and other areas) and contributed to the writing of the manuscript and drawing of graphics. BP designed the study and contributed to the writing of the manuscript. IS designed the study and contributed to the writing of the manuscript and drawing of graphics. SZ designed the study and contributed to the writing of the manuscript and drawing of graphics. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This research was performed within the Transdisciplinary Environment & Health Research Network (TER), funded by the Autonomous Province of South Tyrol.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available in the appendices of the study. Further information is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All participants were asked for their free prior informed consent before interviews were conducted.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests

Sytography

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Appendix A

Based on systematic literature review of web of knowledge using the keywords ‘medicinal’, ‘medical’ or ‘phytomedicine’ and ‘alpine species’ in ‘title’ or ‘topic’ following the PRISMA guidelines we identified 21 references:

Approach	Reference
Using Data from Interviews	[1] (Lower and Central Valais, Switzerland); [2] (Trentino, Italy); [3] (Albanian Alps, Kosovo, Serbia); [4] (Central Alps, Italy); [5] (Piedmont, Italy); [6] (Lombardia, Italy); [7] (Switzerland); [8] (Bern, Lucerne, Switzerland); [9] (Slovenia); [10] (Ligurian Alps, Italy)
Experimental approaches on selected species	[11]; [12]; [13]; [14]; [15]; [16]; [17]; [18]
Land use change and medicinal species	[19]; [20]
Review on selected species	[21]

In addition, we included the following papers on wild and cultivated plants as food and medicine used by Alpine minorities [22–24].

Body of literature (only german speaking literature) with information on plant species used for medicinal purposes in South Tyrol; type of reference with C = cultural literature, P = prescriptions book, S = scientific manuscript; N = number of medicinal plant species stated, originality of information with O = original, S = secondary, OS = original & secondary

Reference	Type	N	Originality
[25]	P	71	OS
[26]	P	44	OS
[27]	C	66	S
[28]	P	38	S
[29]	P	98	OS
[30]	P	67	OS
[31]	C	83	O
[32]	P	83	OS
[33]	C	51	O
[34]	P	112	OS
[35]	S	155	O
[36]	P	100	OS
[37]	C	90	O
[38]	C	18	S
[39]	C	82	O
[40]	P	38	OS
[41]	C	31	O
[42]	S	1	OS

Reference List Appendix A

Abbet C, Mayor R, Roguet D et al. Ethnobotanical survey on wild alpine food plants in Lower and Central Valais (Switzerland). J Ethnopharmacol 2014;151:624–34
Vitalini S, Iriti M, Puricelli C et al. Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy) - An alpine ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 2013;145:517–29
Mustafa B, Hajdari A, Krasniqi F et al. Medical ethnobotany of the Albanian Alps in Kosovo. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012;8:1–14
Grabherr G. Biodiversity in the high ranges of the Alps: Ethnobotanical and climate change perspectives. Glob Environ Chang 2009;19:167–72
Pieroni A, Giusti ME. Alpine ethnobotany in Italy: Traditional knowledge of gastronomic and medicinal plants among the Occitans of the upper Varaita valley, Piedmont. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009;5:1–13
Vitalini S, Puricelli C, Mikerezi I et al. Plants, people and traditions: Ethnobotanical survey in the Lombard Stelvio National Park and neighbouring areas (Central Alps, Italy). J Ethnopharmacol 2015;173:435–58
Mayer M, Zbinden M, Vogl CR et al. Swiss ethnoveterinary knowledge on medicinal plants - a within-country comparison of Italian speaking regions with north-western German speaking regions. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2017;13:1
Stucki K, Cero MD, Vogl CR et al. Ethnoveterinary contemporary knowledge of farmers in pre-alpine and alpine regions of the Swiss cantons of Bern and Lucerne compared to ancient and recent literature – Is there a tradition? J Ethnopharmacol 2019;234:225–44
Povšnar M, Koželj G, Kreft S et al. Rare tradition of the folk medicinal use of Aconitum spp. is kept alive in Solčavsko, Slovenia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2017;13, DOI: 10.1186/s13002-017-0171-x
Cornara L, La Rocca A, Terrizzano L et al. Ethnobotanical and phytomedical knowledge in the North-Western Ligurian Alps. J Ethnopharmacol 2014;155:463–84
Zidorn C. Altitudinal variation of secondary metabolites in flowering heads of the Asteraceae: Trends and causes. Phytochem Rev 2010;9:197–203
Hartwich M. The importance of immunological studies on Rhodiola rosea in the new effective and safe herbal drug discovery. Cent J Immunol 2010;35:263–6
Tomczyk M, Latté KP. Potentilla-A review of its phytochemical and pharmacological profile. J Ethnopharmacol 2009;122:184–204
Marzocco S, Adesso S, Alilou M et al. Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant potential of the root extract and constituents of doronicum austriacum. Molecules 2017;22, DOI: 10.3390/molecules22061003
Lütken H, Meropi-Antypa N, Kemp O et al. Hairy root cultures of Rhodiola rosea to increase valuable bioactive compounds. Production of Plant Derived Natural Compounds through Hairy Root Culture. Springer International Publishing, 2017, 65–88.
Caser M, Victorino ÍMM, Demasi S et al. Saffron Cultivation in Marginal Alpine Environments: How AMF Inoculation Modulates Yield and Bioactive Compounds. Agronomy 2018;9:12
Vitalini S, Madeo M, Tava A et al. Chemical profile, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of achillea moschata wulfen, an endemic species from the alps. Molecules 2016;21, DOI: 10.3390/molecules21070830
Aiello N, Bontempo R, Vender C et al. Morphological and qualitative characteristics of Rhodiola rosea L. wild populations of Trentino, Italy. J Med spice plants 2013;18:41–5
Maseyk FJF, Demeter L, Csergő AM et al. Effect of management on natural capital stocks underlying ecosystem service provision: a ‘provider group’ approach. Biodivers Conserv 2017;26:3289–305
Mardari C, Birsan C, Stefanache C et al. Population structure and habitat characteristics of Arnica montana L. in the NE Carpathians (Romania). Tuexenia 2019:401–21
Tauchen J, Kokoska L. The chemistry and pharmacology of Edelweiss: a review. Phytochem Rev 2017;16:295–308
Obón C, Rivera D, Alcaraz F. Wild and cultivated plants used as food and medicine by the mòcheni ethnic minority in the Alps. Acta Hortic 2012;955:113–8
Rivera D, Alcaraz F, Obón C. Wild and cultivated plants used as food and medicine by the cimbrian ethnic minority in the Alps. Acta Hortic 2012;955:31–40
Membretti A, Viazzo PP. Negotiating the Mountains. Foreign Immigration and Cultural Change in the Italian Alps. Martor Rev d’Anthropologie du Musée du Paysan Roum 2017:93–107
Achmüller A. Teufelskraut, Bauchwehblüml, Wurmtod: Das Kräuterwissen Südtirols: Mythologie, Volksmedizin Und Wissenschaftliche Erkenntnisse. Edition Raetia, 2012
Achmüller A. Die Alpen-Apotheke : Hausmittel Zum Selbermachen., 2015
Canestrini M. Bauerngärten in Südtirol. Folio, 2012
Dander C, Kompatscher A. Garten Der Gesundheit: Heilkräuter in Südtirol: Wissenwertes Aus Mythologie, Volksglauben Und Medizin. Tappeiner, 1991
Hager I, Schönweger A, Hönigschmid A et al. Die Kraft Der Südtiroler Kräuter Nutzen 350 Rezepte Für Wohlbefinden, Schönheit, Küche, Haus Und Garten., 2014
Hochgruber G. Heilkräuter - Die Apotheke Der Natur Alternative Heilmethoden Nach Gottfried Hochgruber., 2018
Marsoner-Staffler Z, Schwienbacher M, Edition Raetia GmbH. Treiner Rosa Hausmittel Einer Kräuterfrau., 2017
Mayr C, Niederegger O. Heilpflanzen Der Alpen: Gesundheit Aus Der Natur von A Bis Z. Tyrolia, 2006
Moroder MM. Heilpflanzen in Den Dolomiten: Volksmedizin, Volksglaube, Volksaberglaube. Athesia Touristik, 2003
Niederegger O, Mayr C. Hausbuch Der Südtiroler Heilkräuter: Gesundheit Aus Der Natur. Athesia, 2005
Pickl-Herk W. Volksmedizinische Anwendung von Arzneipflanzen Im Norden Südtirols., 1995
Plaikner F, Mayr C. Hausbuch Der Südtiroler Heilpflanzen. Athesia, 1988
Schönweger A, Hager von Strobele I, Hönigschmid A. Südtiroler Kräuterfrauen Ihr Leben, Ihr Heilwissen, Ihre Rezepte. Löwenzahn Verlag, 2014
Schwienbacher B. Wenn Körper Und Seele Zueinander Finden Altes Heil- Und Lebenswissen Aus Den Südtiroler Bergen. Integral, 2015
Asche R, Schulze ED. Die Ragginer : 200 Jahre Volksmedizin in Südtirol. Munchen : Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, 1996
Somvi D. Kräuterwanderungen in Südtirol Kräuter Für Hausapotheke, Küche Und Wohlbefinden. Tappeiner Verlag, 2015
Waldboth J, Schrott B. Für Viech Und Leit: Bäuerliche Volksmedizin Aus Dem Eisacktal., 2011
Kiem J. Ein Tamariskenvorkommen im Sarntal. BerBayerBotGes 1992:139–43

Appendix B

Local vernacular names of the german linguistic group for traditional medicinal plants used in the region of South Tyrol.

Plant Species	Count	Vernacular Names
Abies alba	1	Taxn
Achillea atrata	3	Ziegenkräutl, Geschwärtzte Scharfgarbe, Edelraute
Achillea clavennae	4	Weißer Speik, Bergwehmut, Kührauten, Steinrauten
Achillea millefolium	17	Bauchwehbluiml, Blutstillkrutt, Boanfraßkräutl, Bucklkräutl, Dochal, Feldgarbe, Fochal, Frauendank, Frauenkräutl, Gochal, Haboraut, Heil aller Schäden, Herrgottsbucklkräutl, Kochal, Scharfgabenkräutl, Tochaln, Touchal
Achillea moschata	4	Jochkiefer, Jochtochaln, Kleine Scharfgarbe, Iva
Aconitum nappellus	3	Sturmhut, Teufelwurz, Nonnenhaubal
Adiantum capillus-veneris	4	Wiederton, Mondfarn, Frauenhaar, Friggagras
Aegopodium podagraria	6	Girsch, Podagrakrutt, Huhnschinken, Ziegenfuß, Dreiblattl, Zipperleinkräutl
Aesculus hippocastanum	1	Wilde Köstn
Agrimonia eupatoria	2	Heil aller Welt, König aller Kräuter
Ajuga reptans	0
Alchemilla alpina	3	Silbermantel, Marienmantelkrutt, Taumantelkräutl
Alchemilla xanthochlora	18	Alchemistenkraut, Frauenhilf, Frauenmantele, Lägerkrut, Mantelekrut, Marienmantele, Marienmantelkrutt, Muttergotteskraut, Schienaukraut, Silbermantele, Taubercherl, Taubrech, Taumentele, Taumantelkrutt, Zinaukrut, Zinauplattl
Alchemilla xanthochlora	2	Fraunemäntele, Marienmantelkrutt
Allium schoenoprasum	2	Schnitl, Schnittloab
Allium ursinum	5	Hexenzweifel, Wrumlauch, Wilder Knoblauch, Waldknoblauch, Zigeunerzweibel
Allium victorialis	2	Bergknoblauch, Lahnwurzn
Althaea officinalis	4	Eibisch, Heilwurzn, Ibisch, Altheenwurzn
Anacamptis morio	0
Anemone vernalis	2	Osterglocke, Pelzanemone
Angelica sylvestris	0
Antennaria dioica	3	Himmelfahrtsbluiml, Immorrtelle, Ewige Blume
Anthriscus sylvestris	1	Kerbel
Anthyllis vulneraria	3	Apothekerlklee, Katzenbratzerl, Bärenpratzen
Aquilegia einseleana	0
Arabis petiolata	0
Arctium lappa	1	Picker
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi	7	Mehlgranten, Wilde Grante, Ruschbeer, Wilde Preiselbeer, Rauschhorterer, Rossgranten , Ruschgranten
Arnica montana	18	Bergwohlverleih, Bergwurz, Donnerblume, Engenkrutt, Fallkrutt, Gamsblüml, Gamswurz, Kathereinkraut, Kraftrose, Kraftwurzn, Krieger, Mädebluiml, Ogsnbluiml, Wohlverleih, Wolfswurzn, Wolfsziesel, Wundkrutt
Artemisia absinthium	9	Abraut, Absinth, Bermand, Girtelkräutl, Johannisgurt, Magenkrutt, Permat, Schossmaltern, Wurmtod
Artemisia mutellina	3	Goldner Oberraut, Keesraute, Kleiner Baifuß
Artemisia vulgaris	5	Wilder Wehrmut, Gewürzbeifuß, Abraut, Machtwurzn, Sonnenwendkräutl
Asparagus officinalis	0
Asplenium septentrionale	3	Harngras, Haargras, Seifenfarn
Athamanta cretensis	3	Mohrenkümmel, Hirschwurzn, Bärenwurz
Atropa bella-donna	0
Auricularia auricula-judae	2	Judasohr, Ohrlappenpilz
Bellis perennis	6	Monatlan, Maßliebchen, Tausendschön, Sonnentürchen, Mutterblüml, Marienbluimel
Berberis vulgaris	4	Brumlstaude, Sauerdorn, Essigdorn, Bummelbeer
Betonica officinalis	2	Heil-Ziest, Zehrkräutl
Betula pendula	4	Weißbirke, Warzenbirke, Besenbaum, Hoarbirke
Biscutella laevigata	1	Brillensenf
Borago officinalis	0
Botrychium lunaria	3	Bettseichkrutt, Peterschlüssel, Hurenkräutl
Brassica rapa	2	Herbstrübe, Rübenkräutl
Calluna vulgaris	4	Horderer, Hiedekräutl, Erika, Schneeheide
Campanula patula	2	Glogu, Gras-Glockenblüml
Campanula rotundifolia	2	Gloguu, Glockenbluiml
Capsella bursa-pastoris	4	Taschlgras, Beutelschneiderkräu,l Seckelkrutt, Taschnickerkräutl
Carlina acaulis	8	Einhaken, Wetterdistel, Silberdistel, Karlsdistel, Mareindistel, Roßwurz, Karwendel, Eberwurzn
Carum carvi	4	Brotkümmel, Carvensamen, Garbe, Wiesenkümmel
Castanea sativa	2	Kesten, Riggl
Centaurium erythraea	3	Allerweltsheil, Erdgalle, Fieberkräutl
Cerastium fontanum	0
Cetraria islandica	12	Goastraubn, Halswehkrutt, Inschländische Flechte, Isere, Jochrispen, Lungenkraut, Lungenmoos, Misere, Rispal, Rispelreaspelkraut, Rispen, Ruspe
Chelidonium majus	3	Schwalbenkraut, Warzenkrutt, Schellwurzn
Chenopodium bonus-henricus	2	Goasenfuß, Wilder Spinat
Cichorium intybus	3	Wögwart, Wegleuchte, Feld-Zichorie
Clinopodium alpinum	3	Steinpolei, Bergthymian, Basilienthymian
Corylus avellana	2	Haselstaude, Hasele
Crataegus monogyna	7	Mehlbeer, Hagedorn, Zundorn, Schlafdorn, Muttergottesepfalan, Fraudenpfalan, Muttergottesbirlan
Cyanus segetum	3	Blaumützen, Kaiserblume, Kreuzblume
Cyclamen purpurascens	3	Erdscheibe, Kreuzwehkräutl, Guasrubn
Daucus carota	2	Riabe, Wild Rüabli
Dentaria enneaphyllos	3	Sanigl, Dreyblettrich, Zahnkräutl
Diplotaxis tenuifolia	1	Wiesn Rukula
Dipsacus fullonum	0
Drosera rotundifolia	0
Dryas octopetala	4	Wildes Weibal, Welsches Silberkräutl, Bergramanderlein
Dryopteris filix-mas	10	Farnkräutl, Fünffingerwurzn, Hennpfarfl, Johannishand, Labassen, Männerfarn, Otterkrutt, Pfofel, Wanzenwurz, Wurmblattl
Elymus repens	1	Schließgras
Epilobium angustifolium	1	Waldrosen
Epilobium montanum	0
Epilobium palustre	0
Epilobium parviflorum	1
Equisetum arvense	4	Zinnkräutl, Ackerschachtelhalm, Katzenschwanz, Katzenschweif
Equisetum palustre	1	Katzenschwanz
Equisetum pratense	3	Hainschachtelhalm, Zinnkraut, Katzenschwanz
Erica carnea	1	Schneeheide
Erigeron alpinus	3	Cespita, Flöhkräutl, Zauberwurzn
Eriophorum angustifolium	2	Wollgras, Jachwolle
Eryngium amethystinum	0
Eryngium campestre	0
Euphrasia alpina	0
Euphrasia minima	0
Euphrasia officinalis	10	Augenbluiml, Hirnkrutt, Hörbes gregg'n, Magentrost, Milchdieb, Milchraber, Milchschelm, Ruhrkraut, Spöttich, Zigeunerkräutl
Euphrasia rostkoviana	3	Milchdieb, Augenblume, Magenstrost
Euphrasia stricta	0
Euphrasia versicolor	0
Fagus sylvatica	0
Filipendula ulmaria	5	Wiesengeißbart, Geißbart, Krampfkräutl, Bienenkräutl, Wiesenkönigin
Fomitopsis officinalis	0
Fragaria vesca	1	Monatserdbeere
Fragaria viridis	1	Monatserdbeere
Fraxinus excelsior	2	Goaßbaum, Schwindholz
Fraxinus ornus	2	Manna-Esche, Manna
Fumaria officinalis	3	Elfenrauch, Grindkräutl, Kratzheil
Galega officinalis	2	Bockskraut, Goasklee
Galeopsis pubescens	0
Galium aparine	0
Galium mollugo	2	Wiesenlabkrutt, Weißes Labkräutl
Galium odoratum	2	Herzfreund der Venus, Waldmännlein
Galium verum	2	Echtes Labkraut, Gelbes Labkräutl
Genista tinctoria	0
Gentiana acaulis	3	Blauer Enzian, Kuckucksblüml, Guckhantschen
Gentiana lutea	7	Zintal, Zinnzallwurzn, Hochwurz, Goldenzian, Bitterwurzn, Meisterwurz, Königswurzn
Gentiana punctata	1	Tupfnwurz
Geranium pratense	0
Geranium robertianum	5	Ruprechtskraut, Unser Herrn Nagel, St., Wanzenkräutl, Rotlaufkrutt, Robertkraut
Geranium sanguineum	0
Geum montanum	2	Nelkwurz, Bendiktenkräutl
Geum reptan	0
Geum rivale	0
Geum urbanum	0
Glechoma hederacea	6	Gundermann, Donnerrebe, Erdfreu, Wundrebe, Wildes Peterl, Gundelrieme
Globularia cordifolia	3	Blaue Maßlieb, Morgenröschen, Globularie
Hedera helix	1	Eapam
Helianthemum alpestre	3	Sonnenblüml, Goldröslein, Elisabethblüml
Heracleum sphondylium	0
Herniaria glabra	0
Hieracium intybaceum	2	Altheae, Klebriges-Habichtskraut
Hieracium pilosella	0
Hippophae rhamnoides	0
Humulus lupulus	2	Kletternder Wolf, Buschhopfen
Hyoscyamus niger	2	Zahnkräutl, Hyosciami
Hypericum maculatum	4	Hartreu, Tüpfelhartreu, Tausenjochkräutl, Blutkraut
Hypericum montanum	0
Hypericum perforatum	17	Blutkraut, Elfenblut, Fraunpliester, Harthreu, Herrgotts Wundkraut, Herrgottsblut, Hexenkraut, Jagedenteufel, Jagedeifel, Jungfernzucht, Kuttelkrutt, Liebeskraut, Teufelsfluch, Tüpfelheu, Unser Frauen Bettstroh, Walpurgiskraut, Wundokräutl
Ilex aquifolium	1	Metabaum
Juniperus communis	17	Feuerbaum, Heidewacholder, Krammetsbeere, Kranaweten, Kranaweter, Kranebitt, Kranewit, Kranewittstaude, Kronawötten, Machandl, Räucherstrauch, Reckolder, Stechholder, Wachandl, Wacholder, Wachtelbeerstrauch, Weihrauchbaum
Juniperus communis var. saxatilis	1	Kranewitt
Juniperus sabina	3	Sadebaum, Seven, Sebenstrauch
Lamium album	0
Lamium galeobdolon	3	Goldnessel, Gelbe Taubnettele
Lamium purpureum	0
Larix decidua	2	Lörbaum, Lörgatbaum
Leontopodium nivale	7	Bauchwehblüml, König der Blumen, Alpenruhrkrutt, Irlweis, Strahliges Ruhrkräutl, Liebstern, Samtbluiml
Leonurus cardiaca	2	Herzgespannkräutl, Falscher Andorn
Lepidium sativum	1	Kresse
Leucanthemopsis alpina	3	Orakelbluiml, Flohkrutt, Wucherblüml
Leucanthemum vulgare	3	Orakelbluiml, Flohkrutt, Wucherblüml
Lilium bulbiferum	3	Donnerblüml, Gerg-Ilga, Tulipana
Lilium martagon	3	Berglilie, Goldapfel, Sillichwurzn
Lycopodium clavatum	1	Weidmann
Malva alcea	0
Malva neglecta	2	Käsepappel, Rosspappel
Malva sylvestris	3	Käsepappel, Malve, Kaaspapelen
Marrubium vulgare	2	Mariendistel, Helfkräutl
Matricaria chamomilla	4	Kummerbluiml, Muskatbluiml, Gramille, Mutterkräutl
Melilotus officinalis	2	Wiesnrklee, Gelber Steinklee
Mentha aquatica	0
Mentha arvensis	0
Mentha longifolia	2	Wilde-Minze, Ross-Minze
Mentha pulegium	1	Flohminze
Menyanthes trifoliata	2	Fieberklee, Bitterklee
Mutellina adonidifolia	3	Muttelli, Mattau, Alpenbärenwurzn
Myricaria germanica	0
Nasturtium officinale	3	Entgiftungskrutt, Bachkröss, Kröss
Nepeta cataria	0
Ononis spinosa	0
Origanum vulgare	2	Wilder Mjoran, Dost
Ornithogalum umbellatum	0
Papaver rhoeas	3	Feldmohn, Wilder Magen
Parnassia palustris	2	Studentenrösal, Himmlsterndl
Petasites hybridus	0
Peucedanum ostruthium	9	Bergwurz, Brustwurzn, Durstwurz, Göttliches Heilmittel, Hirschwurn, Horschtrinse, Kaiserwurz, Moasterwurz, Thomaswurzn
Picea abies	3	Feichte, Rottanne, Schwarztanne
Pimpinella major	2	Bockwurz, Theriakwurzn
Pimpinella saxifraga	8	Bockwurz, Biberklee, Bimbernell, Steinpeterl, Pockwurschze, Theriakwurzn, Pfefferwurzn, Steinbrech
Pinguicula alpina	3	Fettblattl, Buttergras, Heilblattl
Pinus cembra	3	Zirbelkiefer, Zirm, Arve
Pinus mugo	3	Latsche, Legföhr, Krummholz
Pinus sylvestris	1	Föhr
Piptoporus betulinus	0
Plantago lanceolata	2	Herr des Weges, Rossrippe, Hermelkraut
Plantago major	2	Lügenblatt, Breitwegerich
Plantago media	0
Polygala chamaebuxus	4	Kreuzblüml, Wilder Buchs, Marienvögele, Alpenbuchsl
Polygonatum odoratum	0
Polygonum aviculare	0
Polypodium vulgare	3	Engelsüß, Süßwurzn, Steinlakritze
Populus tremula	1	Espe
Potentilla anserina	4	Anserina, Gänserich, Krächtskräutl, Krampfkrutt
Potentilla aurea	0
Potentilla erecta	2	Edle-Blutwurzn, Tormentill
Potentilla grandiflora	0
Potentilla reptans	0
Primula auricula	3	Gamsbleaml, Aurikele, Plantenigel
Primula elatior	10	Echtes-Schlüsselbluemel, Himmelsschlüssel, Kraftblüml, Gichtblüml, Märzenblume, Osterblume, St-Peter-Schlüssel, Fastbleaml, Eieräuglein, Allejuliableaml
Primula farinosa	3	Maiblüml, Rosäugli, Frauenäugl
Primula glutinosa	3	Speik, Blauer-Speik, Roter Speik
Primula matthioli	4	Bergsanikel, Dreifaltigkeitsglöcklein, Alpenglöckli, Wundglöcklein
Primula veris	10	Himmelsschlüssel, Kraftblüml, Himmelsschlüssel, Kraftblüml, Gichtblüml, Märzenblume, Osterblume, St-Peter-Schlüssel, fastebleaml, Eieräuglein, Allejuliableaml, Petrusschlüssel
Primula vulgaris	2	Gartenprimel, Erd-Primel
Prunus avium	1	Kerschn
Prunus spinosa	2	Schlehdorn, Schwarzdorna
Pteridium aquilinum	0
Pulmonaria officinalis	0
Pyrus pyraster	1	Holz-Birne
Quercus petraea	3	Eich, Oachl, Aichen
Quercus pubescens	3	Aichen, Eich, Oachl
Quercus robur	2	Aichen, Oachl, Eich
Ranunculus acris	1	Schmerzpfandel
Beckwithia glacialis	3	Gletscherrösal, Gamskreß, Rükkehrzu
Raphanus raphanistrum	3	Hederich, Radi, Winterrettich
Rhamnus frangula	1	Grindholz
Sedum roseum	2	Frauenzopf, Frauenwurzn
Rhododendron ferrugineum	3	Oswaldstaude, Almrausch, Rosenholz
Ribes petraeum	2	Zaufen, Ribisl
Rosa canina	4	Heckenroasn, Hundsrose, Dornäpfel, Dornapfelen
Rosa corymbifera	0
Rosa montana	1	Roasn
Rosa pendulina	3	Berhgsrosan, Dirndalrosan, Mairose
Rubus idaeus	1	Kreinbeer
Rubus bifrons	2	Kratzbeer, Schwarzbeer
Rumex acetosa	0
Rumex alpinus	0
Rumex crispus	0
Rumex scutatus	0
Ruscus aculeatus	0
Salix alba	3	Felba, Feler, Felerwind
Salix caprea	3	Salch, Hoft, Mitzeleholz
Salix pentandra	0
Salix purpurea	0
Salix serpyllifolia	1	Quendelweide
Salvia glutinosa	2	Leimsalbei, Bergsalbei
Sambucus ebulus	3	Attich, Miete, Adach
Sambucus nigra	3	Holler, Holder, Schwarzer Flieder, Mausflieder
Sambucus racemosa	3	Holler, Holder, Berghollunder
Sanguisorba minor	0
Sanicula europaea	4	Niklaswurzen, Heil aller Schäden, Wald Sanikel, Heildolde
Saponaria officinalis	1	Seifenkräutl
Scrophularia nodosa	0
Sedum atratum	0
Sedum telephium	0
Sempervivum montanum	3	Donnerkraut, Feuerkräutl, Wetterwurz
Sempervivum tectorum	4	Dachwurz, Donnerkraut, Hauslaub, Steinäpfel
Silene acaulis	3	Polster-Leimkraut, Teufelspeitsche, Niesnagerl
Silene vulgaris	1	Schnellerkraut
Solanum dulcamara	3	Alpranke, Mäseholz, Heischkraut
Soldanella alpina	3	Beschreikräutl, Eisglöckchen, Bärgglöggeli
Solidago virgaurea	3	Fuchsschwanz, Goldene Jungfrau, Heidnisch Wundkräutl
Sorbus aucuparia	3	Vogelbeer, Mostber, Faulischbeer
Stachys sylvatica	3	Bienensaug, Stinkblatt, Klaffen
Stellaria media	4	Sternmiere, Vogelmiere, Hühnerdarm, Hühnergras
Symphytum officinale	3	Schwarzwurz, Himmlbrot, Wallwurz
Tanacetum vulgare	0
Taraxacum campylodes	7	Kuhbluiml, Zigori, Butterblüml, Augemilchkräutl, Bettseicher, Milchbluiml, Pfaffenröhrlein
Thlaspi rotundifolium	0
Thymus pulegioides	4	Quendel, Wilder Thymian, Karwendel, Kinderbadkräutl
Tilia cordata	4	Stein-, Berg-, Spät-und Waldlinde
Tilia platyphyllos	2	Bastholz, Lindt
Tragopogon dubius	1	Bochsbatschlan
Trifolium pratense	4	Rotklee, Himmelbrot, Zuckerblüml, Honigblume
Trifolium repens	1	Kriech-Klee
Tussilago farfara	3	Eselstritt, Märzbluma, Bachblümlein, Hustenblümli
Urtica dioica	5	Nettelle, Gichtruta, Haarnessel, Feuerkräutl, Nesselmännlein
Urtica urens	1	Nessel
Usnea barbata	2	Baummoos, Altmännerbart
Usnea dasopoga	1	Baumbart
Vaccinium myrtillus	4	Schwarzbeer, Swotschba, Blaubeer, Moschbeer
Vaccinium vitis-idaea	3	Granten, Rauschgranate, Kreuzbeer
Valeriana montana	1	Speik
Valeriana officinalis	10	Aldrianwurzen, Augenwurz, Äugleinkräutl, Ballerjan, Elfenpflanze, Hexenkraut, Katzenkraut, Katzenwurz, Mondwurz, Speik
Veratrum album	3	Hammanwurzel, Laiskraut, Schemel
Verbascum densiflorum	5	Himmelbrand, Wollkraut, Fackelkrätl, Marienkerze, Wundblüml
Verbascum phlomoides	3	Wollkraut, Wetterkerze, Himmelbrand
Verbascum thapsus	2	Himmelbrand, Wollkraut
Verbena officinalis	3	Venusader, Springwurz, Träner der Isis
Veronica alpina	1	Männertreu, Grindheil
Veronica chamaedrys	9	Gamander, Männertreu, Sylvesterbluiml, Unser Lieben Frau Rast, Blüht der Gipfel nicht, blüht doch da und dort ein Ast, Beisswurmkräutl, Wundkrutt, Viehkräutl, Grindheil
Veronica officinalis	3	Wald-Ehrenpreis, Männertrau, Grindheil
Viola biflora	3	Gelbvigerl, Gelveilchen
Viola odorata	1	Dreifaltigkeitsbluimal
Viola tricolor	4	Stiefmütterchen, Schwiegerblümlein, Ackerveilchen, Dreifaltigkeitsbluimal
Viscum album	4	Trudenfuß, Wintergrün, Muschgl, Kruschgl

Appendix C

Native plants used in traditional folk medicine in the region of South Tyrol (Alto Adige, Italy). ¹Medicinal use spectrum of traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol, classified into 12 human disorders categories based on the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC-2) [45]: [1] General and Unspecified; [2] Digestive; [3] Eye; [4] Cardiovascular; [5] Musculoskeletal; [6] Neurological; [7] Psychological; [9] Respiratory; [9] Skin; [10] Endocrine/ Metabolic and Nutritional; [11] Urology; [12] Pregnancy, Childbirth, Family Planning.

Nr.

Plant Species

Family

Growth form

Citation frequency

Vernacular names

Plant parts used

Use versatility

Medicinal uses¹

Pharmacological or Phytochemical evidence

Protection status (Protected; partially protected; not protected)

Red List Status

Wild or Cultivated

Not used anymore

Abies alba Mill.

Pinaceae

Tree

Leaf

[4]; [5]; [7]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Partially protected

Cultivated

Achillea atrata L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Bud; Flower; Leaf

[5]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Achillea clavennae L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Achillea millefolium L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Bud; Flower; Leaf

[2]; [6]; [7], [8]; [10]; [11]; [12)

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Achillea moschata Jacq.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Aconitum napellus L.

Ranunculaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1)

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

Adiantaceae

Fern

Leaf

[8]; [12]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

Aegopodium podagraria L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [8]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Aesculus hippocastanum L.

Hippocastanaceae

Tree

Flower; Fruit; Leaf

[1]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Agrimonia eupatoria auct.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[7]; [8]; [9]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Ajuga reptans L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Alchemilla alpina L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[1]; [2]; [3]; [6]; [8]; [9]; [11]; [12]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Alchemilla xanthochlora Rothm.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[1]; [3]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Alchemilla xanthochlora Rothm.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [3]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Allium schoenoprasum L.

Liliaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [5]; [6]; [7]; [9]; [10]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

Allium ursinum L.

Liliaceae

Herb

Bud; Flower; Leaf

[3]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Allium victorialisL.

Aliaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [6]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Althaea officinalis L.

Malvaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[1]; [4]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Anacamptis morio (L.) R.M.Bateman, Pridgeon & M.W.Chase

Orchidaceae

Herb

Root

[9]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

Anemone vernalis L.

Ranunculaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

negative

Protected

Wild

Angelica sylvestris L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root; Seed

[4]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Antennaria dioica (L.) Gaertn.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[7]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[5]; [8]; [10]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Anthyllis vulneraria L.

Fabaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Aquilegia einseleana F.W.Schultz

Ranunculaceae

Herb

Flower

[7]

n.a.

Protected

Cultivated

Arabis petiolata M. Bieb.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Fruit; Leaf; Seed

[1]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Arctium lappa L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

Ericaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[8]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Arnica montana L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[1]; [4]; [6] [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

positive

Partially protected

Cultivated

Artemisia absinthium L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [3]; [6] [7]; [8]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Artemisia mutellina Vill.

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]; [8]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Artemisia vulgaris L

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf; Root; Seed

[1]; [4]; [6] [7]; [8]; [11]; [12]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

Asparagus officinalis L.

Liliaceae

Herb

Root

[8]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm.

Aspleniaceae

Fern

Leaf

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Athamanta cretensis L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root; Seed

[8]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Atropa belladonna L.

Solanaceae

Herb

Root

[4]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Auricularia auricula-judae (Bull.) Wettst.

Auriculariaceae

Mushroom

Fruit

[5]; [6]; [7]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Bellis perennis L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[6]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

Berberis vulgaris L.

Berberidaceae

Shrub

Bark; Fruit

[6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

Betonica officinalis L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[4]; [7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Betula pendula Roth

Betulaceae

Tree

Barl; Leaf; Resin

[1]; [6]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Biscutella laevigata L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[1]; [9]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Borago officinalis L.

Boraginaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[7]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw.

Ophioglossaceae

Fern

Leaf; Root

[12]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

Brassica rapa L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [2]; [7]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

Calluna vulgaris (L.) Hull

Ericaceae

Shrub

Flower;Leaf

[4]; [6]; [8]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Campanula patula L.

Campanulaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[5]; [4]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Campanula rotundifolia L.

Campanulaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[5]; [4]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik

Brassicaceae

Herb

Flower; Fruit; Leaf

[6]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Carlina acaulis L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Carum carvi L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Seed

[6]; [8]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Castanea sativa Mill.

Fagaceae

Tree

Fruit; Leaf

[6]; [7]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Centaurium erythraea Rafn

Gentianaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[2]; [6]; [8]; [9]; [11]

positive

Protected

Wild

Cerastium fontanum Baumg.

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[5]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach.

Parmeliaceae

Moss

Leaf

[2]; [4]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Chelidonium majus L.

Papaveraceae

Herb

Leaf; Resin; Root

[5]; [8]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Chenopodium bonus-henricus L.

Chenopodiaceae

Herb

Flower; Fruit; Leaf; Root

[1]; [6]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Cichorium intybus L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Root

[1]; [4]; [5]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

Clinopodium alpinum (L.) Kuntze

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[4]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

Corylus avellana L.

Betulaceae

Shrub

Bark; Fruit; Leaf

[4]; [6] [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Crataegus monogyna Jacq.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Flower; Fruit; Leaf

[3]; [4]; [6]; [7]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Cyanus segetum Hill

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[8]; [9]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Cyclamen purpurascens Mill.

Myrsinaceae

Herb

Root

[9]; [12]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

Daucus carota L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Root

[5]; [6]; [8]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Dentaria enneaphyllos L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Root

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Dipsacus fullonum L.

Caprifoliaceae

Herb

Root

[1]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Drosera rotundifolia L.

Droseraceae

Herb

Leaf

[2]; [9]

positive

Protected

Wild

Dryas octopetala L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [4]; [6]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Dryopteris filix-mas (L.) Schott

Dryopteridaceae

Fern

Leaf; Root

[1]; [8]; [9]; [10]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Elymus repens (L.) Gould

Poaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[6]; [7]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Epilobium angustifolium L.

Onagraceae

Herb

Flower

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Epilobium montanum L.

Onagraceae

Herb

Flower

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Epilobium palustre L.

Onagraceae

Herb

Flower

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Epilobium parviflorum Schreb.

Onagraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Equisetum arvense L.

Equisetaceae

Fern

Leaf

[1]; [3]; [4]; [5]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Equisetum palustre L.

Equisetaceae

Fern

Leaf

[9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Equisetum pratense Ehrh.

Equisetaceae

Fern

Leaf

[9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Erica carnea L.

Ericaceae

Shrub

Flower; Leaf

[6]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Erigeron alpinus L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [9]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Eriophorum angustifolium Honck.

Cyperaceae

Herb

Flower

[1]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Eryngium amethystinum L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Flower

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Eryngium campestre L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Flower

[8]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia alpina (L.) Bubani

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia minima Jacq.

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia officinalis L.

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [8]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia rostkoviana Hayne

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [4]; [7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia stricta D. Wolff

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Euphrasia versicolor A. Kern.

Orobanchaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[5]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Fagus sylvatica L.

Fagaceae

Tree

Bark; Leaf

[1]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Filipendula ulmaria (L.) Maxim.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Fomitopsis officinalis (Vill.) Bondartsev & Singer

Fomitopsidaceae

Mushroom

Fruit

[6]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Fragaria vesca L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Fruit; Leaf

[1]; [2]; [6]; [9]; [10]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Fragaria viridis Weston

Rosaceae

Herb

Fruit; Leaf

[1]; [2]; [6]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Fraxinus excelsior L.

Oleaceae

Tree

Bark; Bud; Fruit; Leaf

[5]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Fraxinus ornus L.

Oleaceae

Tree

Flower; Leaf; resin

[4]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

Fumaria officinalis L.

Papaveraceae

Herb

Leaf

[6]; [8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

Galega officinalis L.

Fabaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[2]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

Galeopsis pubescens Besser

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [7]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

100

Galium aparine L.

Rubiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

101

Galium mollugo L.

Rubiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[2]; [7]; [9];

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

102

Galium odoratum (L.) Scop.

Rubiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[2]; [3]; [4]; [6]

negative

Not protected

Wild

103

Galium verum L.

Rubiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[8]; [9]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

104

Genista tinctoria L.

Fabaceae

Shrub

Flower;Leaf

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

105

Gentiana acaulis L.

Gentianaceae

Herb

Root

[3]; [4]; [5]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

106

Gentiana lutea L.

Gentianaceae

Herb

Root

[1]; [5]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [10]

positive

Partially protected

Wild

107

Gentiana punctata L.

Gentianaceae

Herb

Root

[8]; [10]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

108

Geranium pratense L.

Geraniaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

109

Geranium robertianum L.

Geraniaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]; [9]; [10]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

110

Geranium sanguineum L.

Geraniaceae

Herb

Flower

[4]; [6], [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

111

Geum montanum L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Root

[4]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

112

Geum reptans L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Root

[4]; [6], [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

113

Geum rivale L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Root

[4]; [6], [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

114

Geum urbanum L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf; Root

[4]; [6], [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

115

Glechoma hederacea L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[4]; [7], [8]; [10]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

116

Globularia cordifolia L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf

[8]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

117

Hedera helix L.

Araliaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

118

Helianthemum alpestre (Jacq.) DC.

Cistaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[1]; [4], [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

119

Heracleum sphondylium L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

120

Herniaria glabra L.

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Leaf

[7], [8]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

121

Hieracium intybaceum Lam.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[1]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

122

Hieracium pilosella L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[1], [4]; [5]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

123

Hippophae rhamnoides L.

Elaeagnaceae

Shrub

Fruit

[1], [3]; [6]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

124

Humulus lupulus L.

Cannabaceae

Shrub

Fruit

[3]; [4]; [8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

125

Hyoscyamus niger L.

Solanaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

126

Hypericum maculatum Crantz

Hypericaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[1], [3]; [4]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

127

Hypericum montanum L.

Hypericaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[4]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

128

Hypericum perforatum L.

Hypericaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[1], [3]; [4]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

129

Ilex aquifolium L.

Aquifoliaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[6]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

130

Juniperus communis L.

Cupressaceae

Tree

Fruit, Leaf

[1], [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

131

Juniperus communis var. saxatilis Pall.

Cupressaceae

Shrub

Fruit, Leaf

[1], [7]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

132

Juniperus sabina L.

Cupressaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[1], [7]; [8];

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

133

Lamium album L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower,Leaf; Root

[1], [6]; [7] [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

134

Lamium galeobdolon subsp. flavidum (F.Herm.) Á.Löve & D.Löve

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower;Leaf

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

135

Lamium purpureum L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[1], [5]; [6]; [7] [8]; [10]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

136

Larix decidua Mill.

Pinaceae

Tree

Bark; Bud; Leaf; Resin

[1]; [6]; [7] [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

137

Leontopodium nivale (Ten.) Huet ex Hand.-Mazz.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower,Leaf; Root

[1]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

138

Leonurus cardiaca L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower,Leaf

[4] [6]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

139

Lepidium sativum L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [2]; [7] [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

140

Leucanthemopsis alpina (L.) Heywood

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[1]; [4]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

141

Leucanthemum vulgare (Vaill.) Lam.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[1]; [4]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

142

Lilium bulbiferum L.

Liliaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[1]; [7]; [9]; [12]

n.a.

Protected

Cultivated

143

Lilium martagon L.

Liliaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[1]; [4]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Protected

Cultivated

144

Lycopodium clavatum L.

Lycopodiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Seed

[4]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Partially protected

Wild

145

Malva alcea L.

Malvaceae

Herb

Flower

[7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

146

Malva neglecta Wallr.

Malvaceae

Herb

Flower

[7]; [8]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

147

Malva sylvestris L.

Malvaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; seed

[1]; [7]; [9]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

148

Marrubium vulgare L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[7]; [8]; [9]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

149

Matricaria chamomilla L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower

[1], [4]; [7]; [8] [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

150

Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall.

Fabaceae

Herb

Bud; Flower; Leaf

[1]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

151

Mentha aquatica L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [6]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

152

Mentha arvensis L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

153

Mentha longifolia (L.) L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

154

Mentha pulegium L

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]; [8]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

155

Menyanthes trifoliata L.

Menyanthaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [8]

positive

Not protected

Wild

156

Mutellina adonidifolia (J.Gay) Gutermann

Apiaceae

Herb

Root

[7]; [8]; [9]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

157

Myricaria germanica (L.) Desv.

Tamaricaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[9]

n.a.

protected

Wild

158

Nasturtium officinale R.Br.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; seed

[1]; [7]; [8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

159

Nepeta cataria L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

160

Ononis spinosa L.

Fabaceae

Shrub

Root

[1]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

161

Origanum vulgare L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[7]; [8]; [9]; [10]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

162

Ornithogalum umbellatum L.

Scilloideae

Herb

Flower

[4]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

163

Papaver rhoeas L.

Papaveraceae

Herb

Seed

[4]; [7]; [8]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

164

Parnassia palustris L.

Parnassiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [5]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

165

Petasites hybridus (L.) "G. Gaertn. B.Mey. & Scherb."

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

166

Peucedanum ostruthium (L.) W.D.J.Koch

Apiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[1]; [2]; [6]; [7]; [8] [9]; [10]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

167

Picea abies (L.) H.Karst.

Pinaceae

Tree

Bark; Bud; Leaf; Resin

[1]; [6]; [7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

168

Pimpinella major (L.) Huds.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [7]; [8]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

169

Pimpinella saxifraga L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[7]; [8]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

170

Pinguicula alpina L.

Lentibulariaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

171

Pinus cembra L.

Pinaceae

Tree

Fruit; Leaf; Resin

[1]; [4]; [7]; [9]; [10]; [12]

Not protected

Wild

172

Pinus mugo Turra

Pinaceae

Tree

Leaf; Resin

[1]; [4]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

173

Pinus sylvestris L.

Pinaceae

Tree

Fruit; Leaf; Resin

[1]; [6]; [7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

174

Piptoporus betulinus (Bull.: Fr.) P. Karsten

Fomitopsidaceae

Mushroom

Fruit

[1]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

175

Plantago lanceolata L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [5]; [7]; [8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

176

Plantago major L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root; Seed

[1]; [5]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

177

Plantago media L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [7]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

178

Polygala chamaebuxus L.

Polygalaceae

Herb

Flower; Seed

[7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

179

Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce

Ruscaceae

Herb

Root

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

180

Polygonum aviculare L.

Polygonaceae

Herb

Leaf

[7]; [9]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

181

Polypodium vulgare L.

Polypodiaceae

Fern

Root

[1]; [7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

182

Populus tremula L.

Salicaceae

Tree

Bark; Bud; Leaf

[1]; [9]

negative

Not protected

Wild

183

Potentilla anserina L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [8]; [10]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

184

Potentilla aurea L.,

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[2]; [8], [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

185

Potentilla erecta (L.) Raeusch.

Rosaceae

Herb

Root

[8]; [9]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

186

Potentilla grandiflora L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[2]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

187

Potentilla reptans L.

Rosaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[2]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

188

Primula auricula L.

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[7]; [9]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

189

Primula elatior (L.) Hill

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [6]; [7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Protected

Wild

190

Primula farinosa L.

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

191

Primula glutinosa Wulfen

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[4]; [6]; [7]; [8]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

192

Primula matthioli (L.) K.Richt.

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

193

Primula veris L.

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[4]; [6]; [7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Protected

Wild

194

Primula vulgaris Huds.

Primulaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[7]; [9]

n.a.

Protected

Wild

195

Prunus avium (L.) L.

Rosaceae

Tree

Fruit

[7]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

196

Prunus spinosa L.

Rosaceae

Tree

Flower; Fruit

[1]; [6]; [8]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

197

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn.

Dennstaedtiaceae

Fern

Leaf; Root

[1]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

198

Pulmonaria officinalis L.

Boraginaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[7]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

199

Pyrus pyraster (L.) Burgsd.

Rosaceae

Tree

Fruit

[2]; [6]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

200

Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.

Fagaceae

Tree

Bark

[8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

201

Quercus pubescens Willd.

Fagaceae

Tree

Bark

[8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

202

Quercus robur L.

Fabaceae

Tree

Bark

[8]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

203

Ranunculus acris L.

Ranunculaceae

Herb

Leaf

[10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

204

Beckwithia glacialis (L.) Á.Löve & D.Löve

Ranunculaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[7]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

205

Raphanus raphanistrum L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[7]; [8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

206

Rhamnus frangula L.

Rhamnaceae

Tree

Bark

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

207

Sedum roseum (L.) Scop.

Crassulaceae

Herb

Leaf

[3]; [4]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

208

Rhododendron ferrugineum L.

Ericaceae

Shrub

Flower

[7]; [8]; [10]

negative

Not protected

Wild

209

Ribes petraeum Wulfen

Grossulariaceae

Shrub

Fruit; Leaf

[3]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

210

Rosa canina L.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Flower; Fruit; Leaf

[1]; [2]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

211

Rosa corymbifera Borkh.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Flower

[9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

212

Rosa montana Chaix ex Vill.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Flower; Fruit

[9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

214

Rosa pendulina L.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Flower; Fruit

[1]; [7]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

213

Rubus bifrons Vest

Rosaceae

Shrub

Fruit; Leaf; Root

[6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

215

Rubus idaeus L.

Rosaceae

Shrub

Fruit; Leaf; Root

[6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [12]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

216

Rumex acetosa L.

Polygonaceae

Herb

Leaf

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

217

Rumex alpinus L.

Polygonaceae

Herb

Root

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

218

Rumex crispus L.

Polygonaceae

Herb

Root

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

219

Rumex scutatus L.

Polygonaceae

Herb

Leaf

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

220

Ruscus aculeatus L.

Ruscaceae

Shrub

Root

[7]; [8]

positive

Partially protected

Wild

221

Salix alba L.

Salicaceae

Tree

Bark

[7]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

222

Salix caprea L.

Salicaceae

Tree

Bark

[4]; [7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

223

Salix pentandra L.

Salicaceae

Palm

Bark

[4]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

224

Salix purpurea L.

Salicaceae

Tree

Bark

[4]; [6]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

225

Salix serpyllifolia Scop.

Salicaceae

Shrub

Seed

[9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

226

Salvia glutinosa L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

227

Sambucus ebulus L.

Adoxaceae

Shrub

Root

[8]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

228

Sambucus nigra L.

Adoxaceae

Tree

Bark; Flower; Fruit; Leaf; Root

[1]; [2]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

229

Sambucus racemosa L.

Adoxaceae

Shrub

Flower

[6]; [7]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

230

Sanguisorba minor Scop.

Rosaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

231

Sanicula europaea L.

Apiaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

232

Saponaria officinalis L.

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Root

[7]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

233

Scrophularia nodosa L.

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Leaf, Root

[1]; [7]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

234

Sedum atratum L.

Crassulaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

235

Sedum telephium L.

Crassulaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

236

Sempervivum montanum L.

Crassulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

237

Sempervivum tectorum L.

Crassulaceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [9]; [10]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

238

Silene acaulis (L.) Jacq.

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[3]; [4]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

239

Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[2]; [8]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

240

Solanum dulcamara L.

Solanaceae

Herb

Leaf

[7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

241

Soldanella alpina L.

Primulaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[4]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

242

Solidago virgaurea L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7], [8]; [9]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

243

Sorbus aucuparia L.

Rosaceae

Tree

Flower; Fruit

[2]; [6]; [7], [8]; [11]

negative

Not protected

Wild

244

Stachys sylvatica L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[9]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

245

Stellaria media (L.) Vill.

Caryophyllaceae

Herb

Leaf

[8]; [9]; [10]; [11

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

246

Symphytum officinale L.

Boraginaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[1]; [7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

247

Tanacetum vulgare L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Leaf

[1]; [4]

negative

Not protected

Wild

248

Taraxacum campylodes G.E.Haglund

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf; Root

[2]; [6]; [7], [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

249

Thlaspi rotundifolium (L.) Gaudin

Brassicaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

250

Thymus pulegioides L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [4]; [6]; [7], [8]; [9]; [10]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Cultivated

251

Tilia cordata Mill.

Tiliaceae

Tree

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [7], [9];

positive

Not protected

Wild

252

Tilia platyphyllos Scop.

Tiliaceae

Tree

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [7], [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

253

Tragopogon dubius Scop.

Asteraceae

Herb

Resin

[9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

254

Trifolium pratense L.

Fabaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1], [8]; [9]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

255

Trifolium repens L.

Fabaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1], [9]; [11]; [12]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

256

Tussilago farfara L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1], [7]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Wild

257

Urtica dioica L.

Urticaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root; Seed

[6]; [7], [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

258

Urtica urens L.

Urticaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root; Seed

[6]; [8]; [9]; [10]; [11]

positive

Not protected

Wild

259

Usnea barbata (L.) F.H. Wigg.

Parmeliaceae

Lichen

Leaf

[7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

260

Usnea dasopoga (Ach.) Nyl.

Parmeliaceae

Lichen

leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

261

Vaccinium myrtillus L.

Ericaceae

Shrub

Fruit; Leaf; Root

[1]; [2]; [5]; [6]; [8]

positive

Not protected

Wild

262

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

Ericaceae

Shrub

Fruit; Leaf

[1]; [2]; [4]; [6]; [8]; [10]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

263

Valeriana montana L.

Valerianaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[4]; [8]; [10]; [11]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

264

Valeriana officinalis L.

Valerianaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[3]; [4]; [6]; [8]; [7]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

265

Veratrum album L.

Melanthiaceae

Herb

Root

[1]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

266

Verbascum densiflorum Bertol.

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

267

Verbascum phlomoides L.

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[7]

positive

Not protected

Wild

268

Verbascum thapsus L.

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Flower; Root

[7]; [9]

positive

Not protected

Wild

269

Verbena officinalis L.

Verbenaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [4]; [7]; [9]; [12]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

270

Veronica alpina L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[4]; [6]; [7]; [8]; [10]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

271

Veronica chamaedrys L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [7]; [8]; [9]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

272

Veronica officinalis L.

Plantaginaceae

Herb

Leaf

[4]; [6]; [7]; [8]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

273

Viola biflora L.

Violaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[1]; [7]

n.a.

Not protected

Wild

274

Viola odorata L.

Violaceae

Herb

Leaf; Root

[2]; [4]; [7]; [9]

negative

Not protected

Cultivated

275

Viola tricolor L.

Violaceae

Herb

Flower; Leaf

[8]; [9]; [10]

positive

Not protected

Cultivated

276

Viscum album L.

Santalaceae

Shrub

Leaf

[6]; [11]; [12]

positive

Not protected

Wild

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Journal Publication

published 26 Nov, 2020

Read the published version in Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine →

Review #1 received at journal
28 Sep, 2020
Editorial decision: Minor Revision
28 Sep, 2020
Reviewer #1 agreed at journal
21 Sep, 2020
Editor assigned by journal
18 Sep, 2020
Reviewers invited by journal
18 Sep, 2020
Submission checks completed at journal
17 Sep, 2020
Editor invited by journal
17 Sep, 2020

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Traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol (Northern Italy, Southern Alps) – Biodiversity and use

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 2

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Appendices

Status:

Journal Publication

Version 2