Digital literacy and online learning satisfaction among junior high school students in the context of COVID-19: The mediating role of online learning engagement and the moderating role of parents' educational expectations

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Digital literacy and online learning satisfaction among junior high school students in the context of COVID-19: The mediating role of online learning engagement and the moderating role of parents' educational expectations

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3608234/v1

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During the COVID-19 lockdown period, educational institutions in many countries adopted online teaching methods to varying degrees to cope with the impact of the epidemic on education, and online learning satisfaction was an important indicator to measure the effect of online learning. This study aimed to explore the mechanism among digital literacy, online learning satisfaction, online learning engagement, and parents' educational expectations. The Digital Literacy Scale, Online Learning Engagement Scale, Perceived Parental Expectation (PPE) Scale, and Satisfaction with the Online Learning Scale were adopted to measure 916 Chinese junior school students. The results were: (1) The digital literacy of junior high school students had a positive correlation with their online learning satisfaction. (2) Online learning engagement mediated the relationship between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction. (3) The positive effect of digital literacy on online learning engagement was different among middle school students who perceived different levels of parental educational expectations; that is, parental educational expectations moderated the first half of the mediating effect. The relationship between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction was a moderated mediated model. More measures should be taken to improve the digital literacy of middle school students and promote the quality of online learning.

digital literacy

online learning engagement

online learning satisfaction

parents’ educational expectations

Chinese junior school students

During the COVID-19 lockdown, most educational institutions around the world adopted e-learning systems to continue teaching and learning [1], and China was the first country in the world to implement the online educational measure of "Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning" to deal with the novel coronavirus pneumonia epidemic [2]. Even in the period of nonlockdown, online teaching has gradually been integrated into face-to-face teaching, and blended learning has become the new normal [3]. In this context, it is important to explore the factors underlying the quality of online learning [4].

Digital literacy and online learning satisfaction

Digital technology plays an important role in the economy, government, and education for Generation Z [5]. Gilster developed the concept of digital literacy as one of the key indicators for measuring digital technologies at the individual and organizational levels [6]. According to the Working Group on Education on Digital Skills and Work (UNESCO), digital literacy includes information literacy, computer literacy, information and communication technologies (ICTs) literacy, and media literacy, which is the ability to obtain, manage, understand, integrate, communicate, evaluate, and create information securely and appropriately through digital technologies [7]. There is a gap in digital literacy between developed and underdeveloped countries and between urban and rural areas, and to change this situation, different countries have adopted different strategies to enhance digital literacy. Effective use of digital technology has been found to improve students' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and emotions [8][9]. Specifically, Balanskat et al. found a statistically significant positive correlation between ICT use and higher student achievement in primary and secondary education.8 The authors also reported an improvement in the performance of underachieving students. ICT use resulted in further positive gains for students in terms of increased attention, engagement, motivation, communication and coping skills, teamwork, and gains related to academic behavior. In addition, an intervention study on digital literacy found that the shaping of students' digital literacy and students' scores on the logic/math assessment showed significant improvement and can boost their confidence in mathematics [10]. Moreover, digital technologies have an impact on factors such as equality, inclusion and social integration. Specifically, a recent meta-analysis showed that students with intellectual and developmental disabilities improved their abilities and performance when using digital games in the classroom [11]. In other words, digital literacy has a positive impact on students' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and educational equity in the educational process.

Online learning satisfaction refers to a feeling or attitude of whether learners' wishes and needs can be satisfied in online learning activities or processes, which is an important indicator to measure the effect of online learning [12]. Scholars have explored and summarized various factors affecting the online learning satisfaction of college students, which can be roughly divided into learner factors, teacher factors, learning content factors, learning media factors, environmental condition factors [13], learning media factors [14], and interactions, namely, learner-content interaction (LCI), learner-instructor interaction (LII), and learner-learner interaction (LLI)[15]. A recent study explores how online learning self-efficacy (OLSE), LCI, LII, and LLI predicted student satisfaction and perceptions of online learning. The regression results showed that the overall model containing all four predictor variables (OLSE, LCI, LII, and LLI) was a significant predictor of satisfaction and perception of learning [16]. Among learner factors, the time of using technology [17] the degree of control over technology, the frequency of using technology [18], and the level of information system use significantly affect online learning satisfaction [19]. Moreover, a study of Pakistani University students finds that digital competence has a positive association with the satisfaction about e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic [20]. These results suggest that students’ digital literacy is closely related to online learning satisfaction.

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, research on online learning satisfaction focused on the higher education stage [21]. With the implementation of the epidemic response policy of “Suspending Classes Without Stopping Learning” in China, the online learning satisfaction of middle school students has also come into the Chinese researchers’ field of vision. However, there are quantitative and qualitative differences between middle school and college student populations in terms of digital literacy as well as self-control. Do the factors that affect college students' online learning satisfaction also apply to junior middle school education? This is a question worth discussing.

Online learning engagement as a mediator

Online learning engagement is a kind of positive state of learners’ participation in online learning activities [22]. The transformation into online learning from face-to-face teaching necessitates revisiting students’ engagement and the role of learner characteristics [23]. The application of Web-based learning technologies has a positive relationship with student engagement [24]. Information literacy had a direct positive effect on online learning engagement [25]. Both computer literacy and information literacy are components of digital literacy [7]. The evidence suggests that the digital literacy of the students is a learner characteristic that has a positive correlation with online learning engagement. At the same time, online learning engagement has been proven to be highly correlated with learning satisfaction [26][27][28]. It seems that online learning engagement plays a role as a mediator between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction.

Parents’ educational expectations as a moderator

Parents’ educational expectations refer to parents’ expectations about the level of education that teenagers eventually receive [29][30]. The famous Rosenthal effect suggests that when people feel positive expectations from significant others around them, they will also actively develop in the direction of significant others' expectations and eventually act like their expectations. Ma and Wei construct a “Rosenthal effect” cycle model of parents’ educational expectations model, which points out that when children receive intellectual and emotional support and feel their parents’ expectations, they self-change in learning motivation, attribution style, and other aspects [31]. Their behaviors and attitudes tend to develop in the direction of parents’ expectations. A study finds a significant positive correlation between parents’ educational expectations and the learning engagement of middle school students [32]. From this, we can infer that parents’ educational expectations are a protective factor for online learning engagement, and digital literacy is another protective factor for online learning engagement for the reasons explained above. The protective factor-protective model in the field of adolescent development suggests that different protective factors interact in predicting adolescent development [33]. One protection factor promotes the effect of another protection factor on the outcome variable. For junior high school students with high parents’ educational expectations, they are more likely to obey and fulfill their parental expectations and needs because of the influence of the culture of "filial piety" during online learning [34]. Therefore, digital literacy such as information acquisition, use, and sharing ability is fully utilized to invest in online learning; that is, high parental education expectations enhance the connection between digital literacy and online learning engagement. For junior high school students with low parents’ educational expectations, the promotion effect is not as obvious as that of junior high school students with high parents’ educational expectations because they may be engaged in nonacademic activities such as online chatting and entertainment due to lower parents’ educational expectations during the online learning process.

The Present Study

Our research objectives were to (1) explore the internal mechanism between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction of Chinese junior school students; (2) explore how online learning engagement plays a role in the relationship between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction; and (3) investigate the role of parents’ educational expectations in moderating the first half of the indirect link between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction. Based on the above review of the literature, we propose 3 hypotheses:

H1: The digital literacy of junior high school students is positively correlated with their online learning satisfaction.

H2: Online learning engagement mediates the effect of digital literacy on online learning satisfaction.

H3: The effect of digital literacy on online learning engagement is enhanced by parents’ educational expectations.

The moderated mediation model of the present study is shown in Fig. 1.

Participants

A total of 983 junior high school students completed the electronic questionnaire from March to April 2022. The criteria for unqualified participants were < 180 s to complete questionnaires and regularity of answers, such as the same choice in each item or a regular pattern of choices (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.). After removing unqualified data, we finally obtained 916 (M_age = 13.51, SD_age = 1.44) valid questionnaires. There were 462 boys (50.4%) and 454 girls (49.6%); the academic year included 474 students in Grade 1 (51.7%), 259 students in Grade 2 (28.3%), and 183 students in Grade 3 (20%).

Measures

Digital literacy

The Digital Literacy Scale was used to assess adolescents' digital literacy [35]. Two psychology professionals and two English professionals translated the Digital Literacy Scale into Chinese. It was composed of 10 items (e.g., “I know how to solve my own technical problems”), including three dimensions: technical, cognitive, and social-emotional. Each item was rated on a four-point scale ranging from 1 (Unskilled) to 4 (Extremely skilled). The Cronbach's α coefficient of the current participants was 0.90.

Online learning engagement

The revised Chinese version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-student (UWES-S) was adopted, which included three dimensions of Vigor, Dedication, and Absorption [36][37]. There were 17 items on the scale (e.g., “When I am studying, I forget everything else around me”). The instruction suggested that the study here refers to online learning during COVID-19. All items were measured on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never) to 7 (Always). The Cronbach's α coefficient of the current participants was 0.95.

Parents’ educational expectations

Wang and Heppner compiled the Living Up to Parental Expectation Inventory (LPEI), which consists of three subscales [34]. We used the Perceived Parental Expectation (PPE) subscale, which assessed parental expectations related to an individual's success in pursuing a career and academic performance [38][39]. The adapted scale consisted of 9 items (e.g., Parents expect my academic performance to make them proud”), and each item was rated on a six-point scale ranging from 1 (Not at all expected) to 6 (Very strongly expected). In the current study, Cronbach's α coefficient of the scale was 0.88.

Online learning satisfaction

Satisfaction with the online learning orientation scale was used to assess adolescents' online learning satisfaction [40]. Two psychology professionals and two English professionals translated the scale into Chinese and changed the “orientation” into “online courses” to be suitable for this study. There were 11 items on the scale (e.g., I feel more confident to complete my online course activities”). All items were measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5(strongly agree). In this study, Cronbach's α coefficient of the scale was 0.93.

Analyses

SPSS 23.0 was used for data entry, sorting, and correlation analysis of each variable. The mediation model and the moderated mediation model were examined through the PROCESS macro program in SPSS, and all variables were standardized before the test. In all statistical analyses, 5000 bootstrap samples were selected to calculate the 95% CI of indirect effects.⁴¹

Describe statistics and correlation analysis Participants

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were conducted on the data of each variable, and the results were shown in Table 1. All four variables had a significant positive correlation with one another.

Table 1 Means, SD, and correlations of all study variables (n=916)

Variables	M	SD	1	2	3	4
1 DL	2.30	0.57	1
2 OLE	4.42	0.99	0.41^***	1
3 OLS	3.38	0.73	0.40^***	0.51^***	1
4 PEE	3.70	0.97	0.19^***	0.22^***	0.16^***	1

Notes: ***p＜.001

Abbreviations: DL, digital literacy; OLE, online learning engagement; PEE: parents’ educational expectations.

Mediation effect test

We used Model 4 of the PROCESS macro program in SPSS to examine the mediation effect. The results showed that after controlling for gender and age, digital literacy was significantly positively associated with online learning satisfaction (β=0.23, t=7.52, p < 0.001), which supported hypothesis 1: digital literacy had a positive correlation with online learning engagement (β=0.41, t=13.34, p < 0.001); online learning engagement was significantly positively associated with online learning satisfaction (β=0.41, t=13.26, p < 0.001). These results indicated that online learning engagement played a partial mediating role between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction. The mediation effect accounted for 42.02% of the total effect of digital literacy on online learning satisfaction. Hypothesis 2 was verified. The mediating effect results were illustrated in Model 1, Model 2, and Model 3 of Table 2.

Table 2 OLE as a mediator between DL and OLS (n=916)

	Model1：OLS		Model 2：OLE		Model 3：OLS		Model 4：OLE
	β	t	β	β	β	t	β	t
Sex	-0.12	-1.95	-0.15	-2.48^*	-0.06	-1.04	-0.12	-2.08^*
Age	-0.05	-1.73	-0.08	-2.50^*	-0.02	-0.78	-0.07	-2.53^*
X: DL	0.40	12.90^***	0.41	13.26^***	0.23	7.52^***	0.34	10.64^***
M: OLE					0.41	13.26^***	0.13	4.43^***
X*W							0.11	3.94^***
R²	0.17		0.18		0.30		0.21
F	61.36^***		67.39^***		98.78^***		49.80^***

Notes: *p ＜.05; **p ＜.01; ***p＜.001

Abbreviations: DL, digital literacy; OLE, online learning engagement; PEE, parents’ educational expectations; OLS, online learning satisfaction

Moderated mediation effect test

We used Model 8 of the PROCESS macro program in SPSS to examine the moderating role of parents’ educational expectations in the mediation process [41]. The results were presented in Model 4 of Table 2. The results indicated that the association between digital literacy and online learning engagement was significant (β=0.34, t=10.64, p＜.001), and this association was moderated by parents’ educational expectations (β=0.11, t=3.94, p＜.001), which supported hypothesis 3.

Simple slopes were probed to further explore the moderating role of social support in the mediation association. The simple slope tests indicated that the positive association between digital literacy and online learning engagement was relatively stronger for students with high levels of parents’ educational expectations (β_simple = 0.45, t = 12.91, p <.001) than for students with low levels of parents’ educational expectations (β_simple = 0.23, t = 4.80, p <.001). The results were presented in Figure 2.

We found that the positive association of digital literacy with online learning satisfaction was explained partly by online learning engagement. Moreover, the indirect association between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction was stronger for individuals with high parents’ educational expectations.

This study explored the relationship between digital literacy and the online learning satisfaction of junior high school students and its internal mechanism. The results showed that the digital literacy of junior high school students was positively associated with their online learning satisfaction. The basic elements of teaching activities are teachers, students, teaching content, and teaching media. Most studies on learning satisfaction explore the influencing factors from the above perspectives. From the perspective of students, most previous studies have explored the effects of their learning attitude, motivation, and self-efficacy on online learning satisfaction [42][43][44]. However, different from traditional face-to-face learning in the classroom, online learning requires students to operate digital devices to complete learning tasks such as lectures, exercises, and homework. With the transition from face-to-face learning to online learning environments, students may feel ill-adapted.40 Students with high digital literacy have stronger network technical, cognitive, and social-emotional abilities. Therefore, in online courses during COVID-19, they can participate in online learning with high proficiency, thus generating higher online learning satisfaction.

The mediating effect of online learning engagement

The mediating effect results showed that online learning engagement played a partial mediating role in the association between digital literacy and online learning satisfaction. The effective use of information technology and digital learning resources can enhance learners' emotional, cognitive, and behavioral input by directly influencing multiple mediating factors, such as learning motivation and learning interest [45][23]. The results of this study confirmed the conclusion again and extended the conclusion to junior high school students. Students with high digital literacy are equipped with stronger abilities and qualities of acquisition, production, use, evaluation, interaction, sharing, innovation, security, ethics, and so on [46], so they can maintain online learning faster and longer, and increase engagement in online learning. Good information application ability is better reflected in the network learning mode, so students have a higher enthusiasm to participate in the network learning communication, and good "information awareness" helps students adopt a positive and proactive attitude to solve problems [47]. Online learning engagement has a positive connection with online learning satisfaction. The vigor, dedication, and absorption attributes of learning engagement can make online learners gain more positive emotions and academic achievements, and thus experience more online learning satisfaction.

Under the background of digitalization, many countries have introduced educational informationization policies to promote the upgrading and iteration of national education and realize the digitalized transformation of education. They make full use of information and digital means and focus on improving the digital literacy of educatees to promote all-around education transformation from the height of national strategies. For example, the National Education Technology Plan (NETP) released by the United States every four or five years since 1996, the Digital Education Action Plan (2021-2027) formulated and promulgated by the EU in 2020, and the Digital Agenda for Education 2023-2027 published by French in 2023 [48][49][50][51]. In the era of the digital economy, the cultivation and promotion of digital literacy will become the leader in developing students' core literacy. The results of this study also demonstrate the necessity of these measures at the micro level. The improvement of students' digital literacy is conducive to the improvement of online learners' learning engagement and online learning satisfaction, so as to promote the digital transformation of education. The healthy development of education will certainly promote the development of social politics, economy, and culture.

The moderating role of parents’ educational expectations

The results of the moderating effect test showed that parents’ educational expectations moderate the first half path of the mediating effect of digital literacy on online learning satisfaction. The association between digital literacy and online learning engagement is stronger for junior high school students with high parents’ educational expectations and weaker for vice versa. In other words, parents’ educational expectations enhanced the effect of digital literacy on online learning engagement, which confirmed the protective-enhancing model. Harrell and Bower point out that basic information literacy can improve the persistence of online learners, but with the improvement of learners' information literacy level, learners will reduce their attention to course content and learning tasks due to the interference of various activities in the network and thus tend to stop learning [52]. Adolescents who perceived high parents’ educational expectations had higher self-expectations for education [53]. Parents' educational expectations are reflected through their intelligence, energy, and economic investment in their children's education. Therefore, junior high school students with high parents’ educational expectations have clearer learning goals and stronger learning motivation in the online learning process during the pandemic, and will consciously apply good digital literacy to online learning rather than to other disruptive activities unrelated to learning tasks. Therefore, the results of this study once again verified the Rosenthal effect.

Implications

As mentioned above, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, basic education students were not the main users of online learning, so most of the research on online learning was focused on college students. In order to effectively prevent the spread of the virus during the period of COVID-19, online teaching has been used to maintain the continuity of education worldwide in various degrees. As a new form of learning that spans time and space, flexibility, and ubiquity, online learning is an activity for students to learn through network communication technology or digital media. It has the advantages of resource sharing, information crowdfunding, behavior data, flexibility in time and space, relationship networking, etc., leading students' learning styles and growth paths [54]. In recent years, many countries have made considerable development and investment in digital learning technologies and online learning platforms [55]. In 2021, the Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission of China issued an Action Program to Improve Digital Literacy and Skills for All Citizens.46 Then, in 2022, China's Ministry of Education listed the strategic action of education digitization as an annual priority. Digital literacy is not only the core of skills in the 21st century, but also the foundation of lifelong learning in the digital economy era. Digital literacy and digital ability have become the core literacy and basic abilities of workers and consumers in the era of the digital economy [56]. Online-offline hybrid teaching will be an education mode that the world continues to explore and develop. Based on the results of this study, we suggest improving the digital literacy of junior high school students and attaching importance to the improvement and reasonable expression of parents’ educational expectations, so as to promote students' online learning engagement, increase online learning satisfaction, and achieve good learning results.

Limitations and future directions

There are also several limitations in this study. First, all variables were evaluated from junior high school students’ self-reports. In future studies, we should consider obtaining variables through the evaluation of parents, teachers, or classmates to reduce response bias and social desirability effects. Second, cross-sectional data cannot show the causality of variables. Experimental and longitudinal study strategies should be considered for use in the future to evaluate more accurate relationships. Third, this study was conducted in a sample of Chinese junior high school students that are reasonably homogeneous in culture, and future studies should extend the findings to different countries and regions.

In conclusion, the findings showed that Chinese junior high school students’ digital literacy had a positive correlation with online learning satisfaction. Students’ digital literacy also had an indirect effect on online learning satisfaction through the mediating effect of online learning engagement. The relationship between digital literacy and online learning engagement was moderated by parents’ educational expectations. Compared with students with lower parents’ educational expectations, junior high school students with higher parents’ educational expectations had a stronger indirect effect. These findings provide insight into how digital literacy influences the online learning satisfaction of junior high school students. Although the data in this study were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the increasing use of digital products in education, the findings were also helpful in understanding the underlying mechanisms of online learning outcomes for junior high school students in nonpandemic contexts. In addition, these findings could also be applied in future studies to examine online learning satisfaction in different age groups or cultural contexts.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study complied with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee of Jiangxi Normal University’s School of Psychology. The ethics review approval number is IRB-JXNU-PSY-2020029. All participants provided online informed consent at the beginning of the questionnaire.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The data of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request. No special materials.

Competing interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial competing interests to disclose.

Funding

Not applicable.

Authors' contributions

All authors contributed to the study's conception and design. Material preparation and data collection were performed by BL. XL and JW completed the data analysis. The first draft of the manuscript was written by XL. BY guided the whole process of the research and commented on previous versions of the manuscript with LG, JW. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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No competing interests reported.

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Digital literacy and online learning satisfaction among junior high school students in the context of COVID-19: The mediating role of online learning engagement and the moderating role of parents' educational expectations

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Digital literacy and online learning satisfaction

Online learning engagement as a mediator

Parents’ educational expectations as a moderator

The Present Study

Material and methods

Participants

Measures

Digital literacy

Online learning engagement

Parents’ educational expectations

Online learning satisfaction

Analyses

Results

Describe statistics and correlation analysis Participants

Mediation effect test

Moderated mediation effect test

Discussion

The mediating effect of online learning engagement

The moderating role of parents’ educational expectations

Implications

Limitations and future directions

Conclusion

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication

Availability of data and materials

Funding

Authors' contributions

References

Additional Declarations

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