Targeting the issue of emotional deficiency in rural human environments, this study combines electroencephalogram (EEG) and virtual reality (VR) technologies thus we choose as experimental images the current situation scenes of five rural main street nodes as well as the comparative transformation scenes. It then assesses the subjects' subjective cognition and level of relaxation-arousal responses using the α/β index in the EEG data and the three subjective scale indexes of "Interested," "Comfortable," and "Sense of vitality." The study's findings demonstrated that: 1. All three scores increased in the transformation scenarios, and subjects' subjective assessments varied significantly across all five sets of scenes. 2. Every transformation scene showed relaxation responses in comparison to status quo scenes, except for the T8 electrode, which displayed the only arousal response in the second set of scenes, out of all the α/β index values that were substantially different. 3. The Pz electrode in the parietal lobe area was found to be the most sensitive to the visual response to the green landscape and the form of the building façade along the street, and the T8 electrode in the right temporal lobe area was the most sensitive to the response to the overall perception of the surrounding environment, according to a comparison of the longitudinal α/β values. More options for rural streetscape design as well as fresh insights and methodologies for assessing the rural human environment in the future are anticipated from this study.
Article
Evaluation of the Impact of Rural Streetscape Enhancement on Relaxation-Arousal Responses Based on EEG and VR
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3638293/v1
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Research background
Improving rural habitat helps foster beneficial interactions between the living environment and the rural social, economic, and resource environments. It is a significant index of the resident's quality of life. Improving rural habitat has become a key initiative to realizing the rural revitalization strategy1. To analyze the current environmental status and lead the improvement measures, a scientific and reliable evaluation technique must be established. Most of the research that has already been done is based on the three dimensions of environment, society, and economy. These studies select the appropriate index factors, build an indicator evaluation system2 for the rural habitat environment, establish a multi-criteria decision-making model 3,4, and objectively assess the quality of the sustainable development level and the rural habitat environment using the entropy weight method 3, hierarchical analysis5, principal component analysis6, and GIS technology platform7. Furthermore, studies on the perceptions of rural residents are steadily growing to investigate the satisfaction of the rural habitat environment, develop a subjective evaluation scale and evaluation system, and learn more about the villagers' sense of participation and participation behavior8,9.
Index assessment methods, which are widely used as the predominant evaluation approach in contemporary research on rural human settlements, are not without their limitations. The comprehensive analysis of complex environmental phenomena may be limited in its ability to encompass all aspects, potentially overlooking certain factors that are challenging to quantify, such as cultural values, emotions, and subjective feelings. Additionally, the subjective and controversial nature of assigning importance and weight to different indexes may result in evaluation outcomes that lack sufficient accuracy. Furthermore, the subjective rating scale exhibits a deficiency in accuracy attributable to the overall limited cognitive abilities of the inhabitants and the inherent bias introduced by the structure of the questionnaire, hence leading to a dearth of precision in the obtained questionnaire outcomes.
To this day, there has been a limited number of research that have explicitly assessed the rural habitat landscape in terms of its impact on human physiology. Electroencephalography (EEG) can serve as an objective measure of physiological responses to assess individuals' holistic experience of their immediate surroundings. Hence, this study focuses on rural streetscape, a significant component of the rural habitat environment. The objective is to investigate the impact of rural streetscape on individual environmental perceptions and emotional responses using electroencephalogram (EEG) measurements within an immersive virtual reality (VR) setting. Additionally, the study aims to evaluate people's satisfaction with the design of enhanced rural streetscape, thereby offering novel insights and approaches for assessing the landscape of the rural habitat environment.
Synthesis of relevant studies
Our perception of emotional, physiological, and cognitive function is influenced by the built environment10,11, and design elements including shape, layout, materials, scale, and color have been found to positively correlate with emotional reactions in neuro-scientific experiments 12. Curvilinear formal spaces result in more joyful experiences 13, natural materials lower stress and anxiety and increase physiological and cognitive function 14, and grey and vibrantly colored interior spaces are conducive to work and pleasure 15.
Streetscapes, one of the most prevalent forms of built environments, are places where many people congregate and where their functional diversity, façade design, and scale characteristics impact how people perceive and use the space 16. Research has indicated that elements of the streetscape enclosure, such as the number of buildings on the block, cross-sectional dimensions, and street tree canopies, positively influence people's sense of safety 17. The visual and physiological comfort of users is greatly influenced by high levels of greenery and water, low building façade densities, and moderately complex street configurations 18. People also favor older buildings whose external design is based on more traditional compositional patterns, and the activities of buildings also significantly affect perception 19.
Related fields of study include the rural environment. People's emotions and actions are particularly influenced by their perceptions of rural settings. From the viewpoint of the locals, M. Campos investigated awareness and impressions of rural landscapes 20. According to Jamal-e-Din Mahdi Nejad, rural landscapes' aesthetics, readability, clarity, and reading environment are extremely important, and their perception is also much influenced by symbols, landscapes, and shapes in the subjective index 21. Yanlong Guo assesses the four aspects of rural landscape design—rural landscape ecology, water environment, climate, and sound. He concludes that the most important factors influencing adolescents' perceptions and experiences of the countryside are sound comfort, air cleanliness, and landscape adaptability. He also finds that a good understanding of the rural environment is facilitated by the diversity of vegetation types 22.
Neuroscience is gradually becoming a powerful tool for exploring the field of built environments, as evidence suggests that human perception of streetscapes may be closely related to patterns of brain activity. This is one way that the built environment is influencing human perception. Within the realm of research methodologies, EEG has emerged as a prominent technical instrument for investigating individuals' perceptions of design elements and their subjective preferences for the constructed environment. Additionally, VR has recently been employed in environmental perception tests, further expanding the scope of study in this domain 23,24. Sara Tilley employed a combination of EEG and interviews as a research methodology to gain insights into the subjective experiences of older adults in various urban settings. The study revealed that older participants exhibited varying levels of "arousal," "engagement," and "frustration" during their transitions between bustling city streets and urban green spaces25. Tian Gao employed VR technology in a study aimed at examining the physiological (EEG) and psychological (attention, positive emotions, negative emotions) reactions and individual preferences in various urban settings. The findings revealed that partially open green spaces elicited the most significant positive impact on negative emotions, whereas closed green spaces were associated with the least recreational preference 26. Sanghee Kim employs the integration of EEG and VR to quantitatively assess the influence of modifications in architectural features on individuals' emotional states. Kim proposes specific combinations of ceiling heights and window proportions that are shown to elicit the least amount of arousal in users 27.
The integration of neuroscience and architecture has the potential to enhance human and societal well-being by evaluating the effectiveness of the current built environment and making more focused design choices 28. Consequently, the primary objective of this study is to concentrate on the enhancement of rural streetscapes. It aims to develop a methodical and inventive evaluation approach for rural streetscapes and offer guidance on the creation of more pleasant, healthy, and human-centered rural streetscape environments. The goal is to foster the harmonious development of individuals, structures, and the surrounding environment.
Study purpose
This study aimed to assess the cognitive responses of participants to rural streetscape scenes before and after enhancements. EEG and VR were utilized to measure these responses (see Figure 1). Additionally, the study examined the perceptual disparities between various scenes of the same rural streetscape and analyzed the potential causal connections between them. The present study employed the α to β ratio index to assess the relaxation-arousal level of the participants. The magnitude of this index can serve as a reflection of the level of brain activity and the degree of relaxation or arousal. The objectives of this study encompass three key facets:
1) This study aims to examine the subjective cognitive disparities among individuals before and after the implementation of rural streetscape improvement.
2) To investigate the correlation between transformation components and the relaxation-arousal responses of brain electrodes,
3) The objective of this study is to examine the correlation between subjective ratings and trends observed in the EEG α/β index.
Subject selection
The experimental scene in question is situated in Shipo Village, specifically in Kangzhuang Township, Fuxing District, Handan City, Hebei Province. The main street of the village consists of five significant nodes (C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5), which are arranged in a north-to-south order. These nodes represent the current state of the scene. Additionally, five corresponding transformation scenes (T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5) have been selected as experimental images (see Fig. 2). The experimental model of the status quo scene replicates the actual rural streetscape, while the retrofit scene model represents a retrofit plan tailored to the existing conditions of the rural streetscape.
As seen in Table 1, the chosen scenes have been categorized into five distinct categories. C1 is a small public space node that currently suffers from neglect and lack of maintenance. T1 transformation strategies aim to enhance environmental quality by introducing greening measures, providing seating areas, and modifying the materials used in surrounding buildings. C2 represents the convergence of vertical and horizontal main streets in the rural area, serving as a densely populated meeting point for pedestrians. However, this node lacks architectural uniformity and fails to preserve the original rural landscape. The T2 retrofit procedures encompass the use of indigenous materials to substitute the initial building façade materials, the harmonization of the roof structure, and the augmentation of vegetation along the thoroughfares.C3 represents a node of activity space located along a secondary road adjacent to the primary street in a rural area. This node exhibits a noticeable difference in elevation compared to the main road, and some of the residential houses within the node are abandoned, resulting in a visually unappealing landscape. In response to this, T3, the corresponding intervention, involves the removal of hazardous structures and the addition of a green park and landscape sketches to enhance the aesthetic quality of the area. C4 is situated at the terminus of the primary thoroughfare within a rural area. The primary enhancements implemented in T4 encompass the enhancement of the street frontage and the reconfiguration of the preexisting agricultural area to augment the variety of cultivated plant species and provide a more pronounced hierarchical structure within the agricultural domain. C5 serves as the central hub of a vast public green space, while T5 is designated to transform and arrange the existing untamed vegetation into an area suitable for cultivating crops and providing an immersive experience.
To enhance the fidelity and quality of the experimental setting, a VR scene map was employed, offering a 360° panoramic mode. This VR scene map comprised five distinct sets of visual stimulus elements. The VR panorama had a resolution of 2048*1080 pixels, commonly referred to as 2K, and the visual stimuli were presented via VR glasses with a refresh rate of 60Hz.
Table 1. Five groups of rural street scenes panoramic images.
Selection of questionnaire indexes
To gather data on the environmental sentiments of participants across several situations, a questionnaire was designed. The questionnaire included three subjective indexes, namely Interested, Comfortable, and Sense of Vitality. Participants were asked to assess these indexes on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 to 5. To accurately determine the level of relaxation-arousal for the three indexes, we utilized a two-dimensional circular affective model (see Fig. 3). The position of Interested, Comfortable, and Sense of Vitality in the model.) based on Scherer's (2005) work. This model incorporates the original Arousal-Valence coordinates proposed by Russell (1979), which measure the degree of excitement/concentration and pleasure/sadness, respectively. Additionally, we included assessments for Control (low-high) and Conductive/Obstructive (favorable-hindering) to provide a more comprehensive description of emotions within the model.
Experimental process
The present study employed a voluntary recruitment method to enlist a sample of 30 Chinese university students, aged between 20 and 30 years. Participants were invited to participate on-site, and a summary of their basic information is provided in Table 2. All subjects possessed satisfactory visual acuity or had their eyesight corrected and were devoid of any mental disorders to ensure accurate identification of visual stimuli. Before commencing the experiment, pertinent demographic information was gathered from each participant. Additionally, participants were provided with detailed instructions about the experimental protocols and were aided in the proper application of the EEG and VR equipment.
|
Item |
Details |
Frequency |
% |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Gender |
Male |
12 |
40 |
|
Female |
18 |
60 |
|
|
Age |
20–25 |
24 |
80 |
|
26–30 |
6 |
20 |
|
|
Education background |
Undergraduate |
2 |
6.67 |
|
Master |
28 |
93.33 |
Figure 4 illustrates the experimental methodology and setting employed in this investigation, along with the designated region for EEG measurements. The studies were carried out within the time frame of September 15th to 25th, 2023, only within the laboratory facilities of the Faculty of Architecture and Art. The laboratory atmosphere was carefully regulated to maintain a consistent temperature of around 25 degrees Celsius. The experiments were conducted utilizing an EEG device as a measuring instrument. The EEG device recorded data from 32 channels at a sampling rate of 500 Hz. Specifically, EEG data was collected from 29 selected lobes of the brain, including the frontal lobe (Fp1, Fpz, Fp2, F3, Fz, F4), left temporal lobe (F7, Fc5, T7, Cp5, P7), right temporal lobe (F8, Fc6, T8, Cp6, P8), central lobe (Fc1, Fc2, C3, Cz, C4), parietal lobe (Cp1, Cp2, P3, Pz, P4), and occipital lobe (O1, Oz, O2). The studies were conducted utilizing the SAGA acquisition and analysis equipment to record brainwave data.
Five sets of pre-existing visual stimuli were imported, resulting in a total of 10 scene graphs. Virtual reality glasses were utilized to present a panoramic slide presentation. The experiment commenced by initially assessing the baseline background EEG measurements of each participant through 30 seconds of observing a blank room panorama. Subsequently, the participants were exposed to a series of VR scene slides sequentially. During this phase, the participants were instructed to maintain a stationary position, visually explore the scenes, and observe them for a duration of 30 seconds. After each scene, the participants were required to reorient themselves to their initial direction. Following this, the participants were presented with a 30-second blank room panorama and were asked to provide subjective evaluations by responding to three questions about interestingness, comfort, and sense of vigor. Following the completion of the questions, participants were instructed to compose themselves and await further instructions before transitioning to the subsequent scenario.
Upon the conclusion of the trial, the participants' VR glasses and EEG devices were detached. Subsequently, the participants were instructed to provide essential personal information. The duration of the entire experiment was around 25 minutes.
Statistics and analysis
The EEG data does not exhibit a direct correspondence with an individual's relaxation-arousal response. To investigate the specific frequency band of interest, the EEG data must undergo preprocessing and extraction procedures. EEG waves are commonly classified into distinct frequency ranges, namely alpha, beta, gamma, theta, and delta waves. Alpha (α) waves have a frequency range of 8–13 Hz, which is indicative of states of relaxation, comfort, and enjoyment. On the other hand, Beta (β) waves are characterized by a frequency range of 14–30 Hz, suggesting heightened cognitive engagement, positive arousal, and focused attention. To examine the relaxation-arousal responses of participants during the transition of the rural street scene, the α/β was selected as the mood index for the present investigation. An augmentation in the levels of α/β might be construed as indicative of a more robust relaxation response in the transformation scenes compared to the current scenes. Conversely, a reduction in α/β can be regarded as a more pronounced arousal reaction in the transformation scenes relative to the current scenes.
The statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0 software, which was utilized to compute the mean EEG data for the five sets of scenarios. To assess potential disparities in subjective and objective data among various groups of comparison scenes, we will conduct a normality test and analysis of variance on the α and β ratio of the current group compared to the α and β ratio of the transformation group, as well as the Likert scale scores of the current group compared to the Likert scale scores of the transformation group. Subsequently, a comparative analysis will be conducted to examine the disparities in the reactions of the alpha and beta ratio index towards the rural streetscape both pre- and post-enhancement. Additionally, the EEG data visualization will be utilized to assess the relaxation-arousal responses and the extent of relaxation. The comparative analysis of the degree of involvement of areas or spots in the EEG topography map will be conducted after the elicitation of the associated emotions by the subjects. In addition, a comparative analysis was conducted to examine the correlation between the subjective questionnaire indexes and the α and β ratios. This analysis aimed to determine if there was consistency in the observed patterns of relaxation-arousal responses between the two measures.
Questionnaire results
The initial step was assessing the normality of the results for the three variables (“Interested”, “Comfortable”, and “Sense of Vitality”) in both the status quo and renovation scenarios within each group. The Shapiro-Wilk test yielded statistically significant findings, suggesting that the three index scores within each scene do not adhere to a normal distribution. Consequently, it is imperative to include both skewness and kurtosis to make future assessments. A normal distribution is said to be present when the ratio of the skewness to the standard error of skewness, as well as the ratio of the kurtosis to the standard error of kurtosis, both fall within the range of ± 1.96. Consequently, it can be observed that only T4 and T5 failed to satisfy the criterion of skewness about the measure of “Interested”. To ensure consistent analysis of the data, it is assumed that the results of the questionnaire follow a normal distribution. Subsequently, a t-test was conducted to ascertain if there exists a statistically significant difference between the scores of the three indexes for both the current group and the transformation group.
Figure 5 illustrates the distribution of data, as well as the mean scores and comparative differences for the three metrics of “Interested”, “Comfortable”, and “Sense of Vitality” among the five sets of scenes (C1 vs. T1, C2 vs. T2, C3 vs. T3, C4 vs. T4, and C5 vs. T5). The data presented in the figure indicates notable disparities in the scores of the three indexes across various comparisons: C1 vs. T1, C2 vs. T2, C3 vs. T3, and C4 vs. T4 (p < = 0.01). Additionally, there is a significant distinction in the scores of the “comfortable” index solely between C5 and T5 (p < = 0.05). Consequently, it can be inferred that the subjects perceive distinct environmental conditions between the current scenes and the transformation scenes within the five groups of scenarios.
Furthermore, it was seen that the mean scores of the transformation scenes in each group surpassed those of the current pictures, suggesting that the transformation scenes were perceived as more aesthetically appealing in terms of overall perception, hence potentially eliciting more enjoyable and positive emotional responses. Based on the placement of the three subjective indexes on the two-dimensional emotion model, it was observed that the subjects' arousal responses in T1, T2, and T4 exhibited the most significant variation in their overall perception of the environment. Conversely, the subjects' relaxation responses in T3 and T5 constituted the predominant portion of their emotional experiences.
Differences in the response of α/β index to rural streetscapes
The initial step involved conducting a normality test on the α/β values across 29 electrodes for a sample of 30 subjects across five sets of scenes. The findings revealed that the data exhibited skewness. Consequently, the Mann-Whitney U test was employed to examine the disparity between the EEG data recorded during the status quo scene and the modified scene. Then identify the specific electrodes implicated in relaxation-arousal responses within the brain lobes.
Figure 6 presents an analysis of the distribution of α/β values, mean α/β values, and the results of a differential comparison between C1 and T1 across 29 electrodes in the first set of scenes. Notably, a significant difference (p < = 0.01) was observed in the α/β values of Pz electrodes situated in the parietal region when comparing the responses of C1 and T1.
The Pz electrode is associated with spatial perception, visual processing, and cognitive processing. Notably, the α/βvalue is higher in T1 compared to C1, suggesting that the brain is in a state of relaxation. This finding suggests that the presence of greenery and open space may enhance visual attention and elicit a more pronounced relaxation response in individuals.
Furthermore, no statistically significant disparities were identified at any of the other electrodes. However, it is noteworthy that most of the electrodes demonstrated greater relaxation responses during T1, except for the electrodes that did not exhibit substantial alterations.
The findings from the analysis of the second set of scenes are depicted in Fig. 7. Notably, a statistically significant disparity is observed in the α/β values between the T8 electrode situated in the right temporal lobe region (p < = 0.01) and the Pz electrode located in the parietal lobe region (p < = 0.05) when comparing the response of C2 to T2.
The T8 electrode is associated with visuospatial processing and emotion regulation. The decrease in the α/β value of the T8 electrode, relative to the C2 electrode, during T2, suggests that if the streets possess appropriate dimensions and ratios, along with the harmonious and unified buildings lining the street, may have facilitated increased attention and focus among subjects, and may have enabled a more profound visual and emotional engagement with their environment, leading to arousal responses in the right temporal lobe area. The α/β value of the Pz electrode on T2 exhibited a greater average compared to that of C2. This finding aligns with the performance observed in the scene group. It is plausible that this difference could be attributed to the relaxation response induced by the greening enhancement on both sides of the street.
Furthermore, apart from the Fp1, Fp2, and Fp2 electrodes in the frontal areas exhibiting notable variations in α/β values in response to relaxation, the remaining electrodes demonstrated an arousal response.
The findings from the examination of the third set of scenes in the study are presented in Fig. 8. Notably, the analysis revealed a statistically significant distinction (p < = 0.05) in terms of the activity observed in the Cp5 electrode located in the left temporal lobe region, as well as the P3 and Pz electrodes situated in the parietal lobe area.
The electrode located in the left temporal lobe region, known as Cp5, plays a crucial role in engaging in the cognitive processes associated with scene perception and environmental recognition. The observed rise in the α/β index value of the Cp5 electrode at T3 suggests a decrease in participants' attentional engagement with this specific area during environmental perception. This finding may potentially indicate that the presence of a solitary vacant public space elicited feelings of monotony and tedium among the subjects. The α/β index values of P3 and Pz electrodes located in the parietal area on T3 exhibited higher averages compared to those of C3 electrodes. Additionally, a greater number of electrodes elicited relaxation responses in the third set of scenes, as opposed to only Pz electrodes in the first and second sets of scenes. These findings indicate a positive correlation between the implementation of remodeling measures, such as the addition of green parks and landscape vignettes, and the relaxation responses observed in the subjects.
The presence of a vast, centralized green area within the surroundings elicited a relaxing response in most brain electrodes. This observation was further supported by the lack of significant changes observed in the remaining electrodes.
The findings from the examination of the fourth set of scenes are presented in Fig. 9. Among these, the α/β index value of F4 electrodes in the frontal lobe region exhibited a statistically significant distinction in the reaction between C4 and T4 (p < = 0.05).
The frontal area plays a crucial role in the regulation and management of attention during the process of perceiving the surroundings. It effectively organizes sensory input from visual, aural, and tactile modalities to create a unified perception of the surrounding environment. The α/β index value of the F4 electrode on T4 exhibited a higher average compared to that of C4. This finding suggests that the participants displayed a greater inclination towards relaxation and introspection while observing the environment, as opposed to a state of concentration. Consequently, it can be inferred that the uniform style and form of street buildings, along with the intricately layered farmland landscape, facilitated a deeper understanding of the environment and personal experiences among the participants, thereby eliciting relaxation responses.
Furthermore, it is worth noting that there were no statistically significant changes seen on any of the remaining electrodes. However, most of the electrodes exhibited a greater number of relaxation responses on T4.
As depicted in Fig. 10, the electrodes that displayed notable variations in α/β index values were observed to be more widely distributed and more abundant in the fifth set of scenes compared to the groups of situations. Significant differences were observed in the response of the Fc5 electrode located in the left temporal lobe area, the T8, Cp6, and P8 electrodes situated in the right temporal lobe area, and the P4 electrode in the parietal lobe area when comparing the stimuli of C5 and T5 (p ≤ 0.05). Moreover, the mean α/β index values were found to be greater for T5 compared to C5.
The observed elevation of α/β index values on electrodes Fc5, T8, Cp6, and P8 located in the temporal lobe region suggests that the participants were involved in affective processing and the regulation of emotions during their perception of the environment. Furthermore, the remediation of the expansive green area appeared to enable the participants to direct their attention more toward their personal experiences, resulting in a relaxation response. The observed rise in α/β index values on P4 electrodes located in the parietal region implies that individuals may experience a heightened inclination to perceive, focus on, and mentally engage with an organized and visually appealing natural setting. This response is indicative of a state of relaxation.
Furthermore, among the remaining electrodes that exhibited no substantial disparities, it was observed that the electrodes situated in the temporal lobe region consistently displayed relaxation responses. Conversely, the alterations in the α/β index values within the frontal and occipital lobe regions were comparatively less prominent.
Comparative analysis of relaxation-arousal levels of Pz and T8 electrodes
Based on the findings of the analysis, it can be concluded that the Pz electrode located in the parietal area exhibited more superiority compared to the other electrodes in terms of the substantial variations observed in the α/β indexes before and following the enhancement of the rural street image, as depicted in Fig. 11(a). The Pz electrodes exhibited relaxation responses across three scene groups, namely the first set of scenes, the second set of scenes, and the third set of scenes. The highest amount of relaxation was observed in the second set of scenes, followed by the first set of scenes, and lastly the third set of scenes. The enhancement measures commonly implemented for the three categories of scenes primarily involved the augmentation of vegetation and the integration and synchronization of architectural facades along the street. Notably, the variations among these measures were primarily attributed to the extent of greenery and the spatial dimensions in which the subjects were situated. This finding suggests that the presence of harmoniously designed buildings along the street, coupled with an appropriate scale of street space and the inclusion of clean greenery on both sides, can significantly enhance the positive emotions experienced by individuals in their perception of the environment, leading to feelings of relaxation and happiness. The remodeling measures implemented in the first set of scenes and the third set of scenes demonstrate that the inclusion of a limited area of concentrated green space featuring landscape vignettes, along with the provision of public space equipped with seating chairs, can effectively induce a relaxation response among the participants. However, the absence of substantial elements within the site may potentially impact the subjects' perception of relaxation and comfort.
In Fig. 11(b), it can be shown that the T8 electrode, located in the right temporal lobe region, had an arousal response in the second set of scenes, but it displayed a relaxation response in the fifth set of scenes. Both scenarios share a common characteristic in that they are situated at street intersection nodes. However, the restoration of the previous architectural form to the area is the most apparent visual alteration observed in the second set of scenes. This results in a cohesive and harmonized aesthetic along the facades of the street buildings. On the other hand, the fifth set of scenes distinguishes itself through the planning of the original farmland as a crop planting and experience area. This approach enhances the diversity of plant species and creates a landscape characterized by a well-structured and orderly arrangement. This observation suggests that when individuals are situated within a street space of comparable dimensions, the architectural surroundings elicit a heightened sense of excitement within the brain, prompting the subjects to engage in perceptive and cognitive processes related to their environment. Conversely, when exposed to expansive green spaces with a broad vista, individuals experience a state of relaxation and immersion.
Trend analysis of changes in subjective scales and α/β indicator values
Figure 12 illustrates the patterns seen in the average scores of three subjective indicators, namely Interested, Comfortable, and Sense of Vitality, as contrasted to the trends in the average α/β index values on the electrodes exhibiting significant distinctions. The magnitude of change in the "Sense of Vitality" indicator within the first set of scenes is the most significant, which contradicts the relaxation response shown in the average α/β values on the Pz electrodes. The observed pattern in the fluctuation of the "Interested" rating within the second set of scenes demonstrates the most significant magnitude of variation. This finding is partially congruent with the recorded arousal reaction detected by the T8 electrode but contradicts the emotional response observed at the Pz electrode. The most significant alteration observed in the comfort feeling indication within the third set of scenes corresponds to the relaxation response demonstrated by the Cp5, P3, and Pz electrodes. Notably, the Pz electrode displays the highest sensitivity in environmental perception. The observed arousal response displayed by the participants in the fourth set of scenes, as indicated by the sensation of a "Sense of Vitality", demonstrated a consistent pattern with the alteration of the T8 electrode. However, this pattern did not align with the changes observed in the F4 electrode. The most significant alteration in the "Comfortable" score among the participants in the fifth set of scenes was found to be in line with the relaxation response demonstrated by the T8, Fc5, Cp5, P8, and P4 electrodes. Notably, the T8 electrode revealed the highest level of sensitivity.
The objective of this study was to assess the impact of rural streetscape enhancement on individuals' relaxation-arousal responses. This was achieved by measuring the cognitive stimulus responses obtained from the EEG in a virtual reality environment. Additionally, the study aimed to investigate the specific elements of streetscape modification that may have a beneficial effect. The findings of this study indicate that there were noticeable alterations in the subjective evaluation scale and α/β values when participants were exposed to the rural streetscape.
(1) Substantial variations in subjective cognitive evaluations exist between individuals' perceptions of the current scenes and the transformation scenes across various groups. Furthermore, the transformation scenes exhibit enhancements in three subjective indices (“Interested”,” Comfortable”, and “Sense of Vitality”). These findings suggest that the transformation scenes possess a greater capacity to elicit positive emotions.
(2) The cognitive activity relates to the prefrontal, parietal, and temporal lobes 29. The parietal area functions at the interface between perception, action, and cognition by integrating visuospatial and cognitive data to create topographically ordered behavioral signals 30. The Pz electrode in the parietal lobe exhibited a greater number of relaxation responses on T1. This implies that the augmentation of centralized green spaces and open spaces, as well as the integration of architectural components and shapes along the roadway, can potentially boost levels of visual attention and cognitive processing. Prior studies have demonstrated that the presence of plants in a street environment has a notable and favorable impact on several human emotions, such as feelings of comfort and vitality 31. These findings align with the results of the present study. The Parietal zone Pz electrodes produced relaxation responses in both T2 and T3. These responses were characterized by the presence of various plant species, the creation of green parks, and the improvement of building facades as part of the remodeling process. Other studies have also demonstrated that a street scene that is more diverse and less fragmented leads to positive emotional experiences 16. Furthermore, the observed variations in relaxation levels across the three groups further indicate that distinct street scales have an impact on individuals' pleasant moods, which is like previous research demonstrating that the scale of indoor spaces can elicit either good or negative physiological reactions in users 27.
It is believed that goal-directed behavior and spatial memory are significantly influenced by regions of the temporal lobe 32. In this investigation, the sole arousal response observed was in the right temporal lobe region T8 electrode at T2. Notably, T2 was situated at the intersection node, which exhibited a very limited range of vision when compared to the other scenarios. Hence, the presence of architectural structures in the surroundings enhanced the participants' levels of attentiveness and cognitive attention. The primary features of transformation in T5 exhibited similarities to the above scenes, thereby eliciting a relaxing response.
Furthermore, the electrode Cp5 located in the left temporal lobe area, the electrode P3 situated in the parietal lobe area at T3, and the electrode F4 positioned in the frontal lobe area at T4 exhibited relaxation responses. Their transition aspects are comparable to the above scenes. The electrodes located in the left temporal lobe area (specifically Fc5), right temporal lobe area (T8, Cp6, P8), and parietal lobe area (P4) exhibited relaxation responses in the T5 region. T5 exhibited the highest number of relaxation responses in the study, indicating that it had the smallest green space area and elicited the most relaxation responses. This finding suggests a positive correlation between the size of the green area and the level of relaxation response among the participants.
(3) Vecchiato et al. conducted a study that established a correlation between self-reported emotional responses and EEG responses. The researchers proposed that utilizing emotion identification methods that rely on vital sign readings could serve as an objective tool for spatial assessments 33. In the current investigation, an examination was conducted to assess the congruence between subjective index scores and EEG data trends. The results revealed a lack of precise alignment between the subjective scale and the relaxation-arousal response. The T8 electrode located in T2, the Cp5, P3, and Pz electrodes situated in T3, the T8 electrode in T4, and the T8, Fc5, Cp5, P8, and P4 electrodes positioned in T5 exhibited congruence with the subjective questionnaire. The limited number of indications present in the subjective evaluation scale may not adequately capture the extent of correlation and consistency between the scale and the EEG data.
This study investigated the alterations in α/β values and emotional responses in the EEG of participants exposed to five different sets of rural streetscape scenes using VR-based immersive spatial experience. A total of 30 subjects were included in the study. Additionally, the study sought to explore the factors that may impact relaxation-arousal responses to these modifications. The findings of the study indicate that the Pz electrodes located in the parietal area exhibited heightened sensitivity towards visual stimuli associated with the green landscape and the architectural features of building facades along the street. There was a favorable correlation observed between the extent of green space, the integration of green elements, and the integration of architectural elements with relaxation responses. The presence of properly proportioned streets elicited relaxation responses, whereas the absence of activity and uniformity in public spaces diminished the individuals' happy mood. The electrode located in the right temporal lobe region, specifically T8, demonstrated the highest level of sensitivity towards the overall perceptual response to the surrounding environment. The presence of a built environment in proximity evoked an arousal response and enhanced the concentration and focus of the participants. Conversely, when the site provided an unobstructed view of an open field, a sense of relaxation was elicited.
Moreover, it was observed that the subjective scale findings did not precisely align with the α/β values; yet certain resemblances were identified. This suggests that physiological reactions happened without the subjects' cognitive awareness of emotional shifts 34, therefore, it is not advisable to exclusively rely on self-reported psychological assessments when evaluating environmental perceptions, emphasizing the need for further investigation into the correlation between subjective and physiological assessments in future research.
This study, however, possesses certain drawbacks. Initially, the participants in the study consisted of college students, rather than the primary demographic of rural inhabitants. Consequently, it is important to acknowledge that there may exist certain disparities between the findings obtained and the real-world circumstances. Furthermore, the VR technology employed in this study cannot replicate certain sensory pathways seen in real-life scenarios, such as touch and hearing. Additionally, the VR simulation used in this experiment does not fully replicate the authentic environment, leading to potential inaccuracies in the results.
The consideration of user perception is frequently overlooked during the design phase of rural habitats. This research investigates the alteration of individuals' environmental perception in rural streetscapes by employing the technology of EEG in conjunction with VR. The aim is to offer insights for designers in determining the most preferred and habitable rural streetscape for residents.
Author contributions statement
HG.R.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, review, editing; YJ.W.: conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, formal analysis, investigation, resources, data curation, writing, visualization, project administration; J.Z.: conceptualization, methodology, supervision, review, editing, funding acquisition. QQ.W.: supervision, review. ZM.Z.: methodology, data curation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was supported by the Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (RS-2023-00239818).
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hebei University of Engineering (protocol code BER-YXY-2023031, approved 10 June 2023).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Written informed consent has been obtained from the subjects to publish this paper.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Data Availability
The datasets used and analysed during the current study available from YJ.W. on reasonable request. All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.
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No competing interests reported.