Optimizing Nanofluid Formulations for Enhanced Thermophysical Properties in Crude Oil: A Study of MWCNTs and SDS in EOR Processes

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3746315/v1

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Optimizing Nanofluid Formulations for Enhanced Thermophysical Properties in Crude Oil: A Study of MWCNTs and SDS in EOR Processes

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3746315/v1

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This research delved into the effects of introducing multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) into crude oil with an anionic base, aiming to enhance its thermophysical attributes in the EOR process. The investigation encompassed a range of properties, including interfacial tension, viscosity, density, and electrical conductivity, measured using an LV rheometer with spindle 18. Various ratios of MWCNTs and SDS were mixed with the crude oil to evaluate their impacts. The study uncovered that the 1:1 ratio of MWCNTs to SDS achieved a noteworthy 10% reduction in interfacial tension while minimally affecting viscosity, showing promise for practical applications. Temperature had diverse effects on viscosity and interfacial tension, displaying fluctuating trends. The highest observed result was a substantial 190% viscosity increase at 40°C with a 2:1 ratio, whereas the lowest was a slight − 0.81% density change at 60°C for the 1:1 ratio. Additionally, interfacial tension consistently decreased over time for all ratios at various temperatures, with the most significant reductions observed at 40°C and 60°C, particularly for the 1:2 and 1:1 ratios. Furthermore, adding MWCNTs and SDS led to a remarkable drop in electrical conductivity, indicating a substantial decrease in salt content within the crude oil. However, it was noted that higher MWCNT concentrations might not be cost-effective, emphasizing the importance of optimizing additive ratios for a balance between performance and economic viability. This study highlights the potential of tailored nanofluid formulations to improve the thermophysical properties of crude oil, potentially enhancing extraction and refining processes.

Environmental Engineering

Petroleum Engineering

Chemical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering

Viscosity

Density

Interfacial tension

Electrical conductivity

SDS

In response to the growing demand for fossil resources, the discovery of new conventional oil reserves is slowing down, necessitating fresh strategies for enhancing crude oil recovery. Traditional recovery methods, although cost-effective, often fall short of recovering. As a result, researchers are increasingly turning to advanced recovery techniques, particularly for unconventional reservoirs, to efficiently extract more oil. One promising avenue is chemical-enhanced oil recovery (CEOR), which offers the potential to improve oil recovery significantly. This approach is particularly relevant, as approximately half of the primary oil resources remain trapped in reservoirs post-initial production for various reasons. Secondary and tertiary recovery operations have shown promise through water injection methods. With the rise in their field application, CEOR methods have captured significant attention and importance, primarily attributed to their considerable influence on enhancing the recovery factor. Notably, this engineered method not only alters wettability, a key outcome of low-salinity water injection, but also influences interfacial tension (IFT) reduction by regulating ions [1–5].

Amid these developments and due to expensive costs, the incorporation of additives, such as nanoparticles, has emerged as a potential enhancement within the EOR process. Nanoparticles within nanosuspensions typically range in size from 1 to 100 nm, and this small size amplifies their effective surface area and notable surface-area-to-volume ratio [6–14], impacting fluid properties like heat transfer, viscosity, and particle activity on surfaces [5, 15–19]. Moreover, nanoparticles possess unique physicochemical and mechanical properties and exhibit resilience against degradation [20–27], especially in oil and gas reservoirs characterized by high salinity and temperature [28]. The effectiveness of nanofluids in EOR hinges on various parameters, including nanoparticle size and type [29–31].

The utilization of MWCNTs in crude oil, aimed at augmenting its thermophysical attributes, is an area of keen interest within both materials science and the petroleum industry. MWCNTs exhibit significant potential in enhancing various crucial characteristics of crude oil-based nanofluids. MWCNTs are renowned for their remarkable thermal conductivity and inherent stability. The notable aspect ratio and expansive surface area inherent to MWCNTs facilitate an enhanced heat transfer mechanism within the nanofluid [15, 32–34].

IFT and viscosity play crucial roles in nanofluid applications for petroleum oil recovery, as IFT determines how effectively fluids interact at the interface. By lowering IFT, nanofluids can displace and mobilize trapped oil droplets more efficiently, aiding their recovery from reservoirs. Since nanofluids can alter the viscosity of fluids and impact their flow behavior, controlled viscosity changes induced by nanoparticles can improve fluid mobility, enabling better sweep efficiency and displacement of oil from porous reservoir rocks. Therefore, optimizing IFT and viscosity using nanofluids can significantly enhance petroleum oil recovery processes [35–37].

Nanoparticles tend to clump together or settle out within suspensions due to their elevated surface area and the attractive forces operating between them [38]. This poses a significant obstacle when employing nanofluids, as ensuring their compatibility and stability becomes challenging. Surfactants play a vital role in maintaining nanofluid stability, preventing nanoparticle agglomeration, and ensuring uniform dispersion. The choice of surfactant significantly impacts stability, dispersion, and thermophysical properties. Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) is particularly noteworthy in this regard due to its amphiphilic properties, which include a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. This makes SDS highly effective in stabilizing MWCNTs within the oil phase by employing electrostatic and steric stabilization mechanisms. SDS's compatibility with both MWCNTs and crude oil makes it a preferred surfactant choice for creating stable nanofluids [39–41]. The MWCNTs to SDS surfactant ratio is a critical factor in nanofluid preparation, influencing dispersion, stability, and thermophysical properties. Determining the optimal ratio is essential to strike the right balance between stability and property enhancement, as an excess of surfactant can reduce thermal conductivity, while insufficient amounts can lead to instability [42–44].

Elyaderani et al. [45] assessed the effectiveness of functionalized carbon nanotubes as a nano additive for enhancing heavy-oil recovery, with the usage of sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonates (SDBS) as a surfactant. Incorporating nanoparticles increased the viscosity, with values of 1.06, 1.15, and 1.3 cp for concentrations of 0.01, 0.05, and 0.1 wt.%, respectively. The introduction of a surfactant notably enhanced nanofluid stability, especially at higher salinity levels. In terms of heavy-oil recovery, the application of MWCNT nanofluid yielded improved results, recovering up to 20% more oil compared to techniques. Mahdavinezhad et al. [46] explored the impact of functionalized-MWCNTs on EOR operations. Their results uncovered significant promise in the nano additive they developed for diminishing the interfacial tension between crude oil and brine. Maleki et al. [47] conducted an investigation into the efficacy of nanocomposites synthesized by grafting polyacrylamide onto graphene oxide (GO) and MWCNTs for EOR. Their study focused on properties such as wettability alteration, interfacial tension reduction, and mobility control. The outcomes demonstrated that these synthesized nanohybrids exhibited remarkable stability under varying salinity conditions. Furthermore, the nanocomposites were capable of modifying wettability and reducing interfacial tension. Gharibshahi et al. [48] examined the influence of surface modification and the incorporation of MWCNTs on the efficiency of heat processes and EOR. Their results revealed a notable 43.9% improvement in EOR through the utilization of MWCNTs.

The rationale behind selecting an anionic surfactant lies in its demonstrated efficacy for EOR, aligning with the goal of maximizing extraction. Additionally, considering the high salinity of the crude oil, an auxiliary surfactant could be employed to bolster stability, though the unique aspect of this thesis involved investigating the impacts of MWCNTs within high-salinity conditions.

Having considered the comprehensive literature survey, it can be seen that the incorporation of MWCNTs into crude oil-based nanofluids holds the potential to elevate thermophysical properties, particularly when employing SDS as the chosen surfactant. The judicious selection and balance of surfactant emerge as fundamental elements in achieving stable and effective nanofluids boasting enhanced thermal properties. This area of research assumes paramount importance across diverse industrial applications, ranging from heat transfer systems to the transportation of oil.

As evident, previous investigations primarily centered on assessing the efficacy of MWCNTs, evaluating different concentrations, and comparing MWCNTs with alternative nanomaterial additives [47, 49–56]. Remarkably, none of these prior studies delved into the influence of surfactant ratios. Hence, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, this research study will delve into the efficacy of MWCNT utilization in crude oil using a limited quantity of MWCNTs as nanomaterial additives, the impact of employing the most suitable surfactant, SDS, and the critical role played by the MWCNTs: SDS surfactant ratio in influencing thermophysical properties.

The examined properties encompass interfacial tension, viscosity, density, electrical conductivity, and the impact of salt concentration on electrical conductivity. To assess the impact and discern the effects of the additives on the base fluid (crude oil), a composite model was formulated. This model was designed based on a weight percentage composition of the base fluid, where each additive constituted one percent of the overall composition. The objective of MWCNTs and surfactants was to gauge their influence on the thermophysical properties, aiming to induce modifications and enhancements conducive to increased extraction and refining efficiency.

2.1 Materials and rigs

The SDS was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, and MWCNT was procured from Neutrino Corporation. Crude oil sourced from Omidiyeh, Khuzestan, Iran, was selected as the base fluid for investigating the effects of incorporating the aforementioned substances. The physical characteristics of these nanotubes are detailed as purity: >95%, diameter: 3–5 nm, special surface area: >233 m²/g, and length of nanoparticle: 50 µm. The cylindrical coaxial rheometer, also known as the Couette rheometer, was employed to measure the response of different fluids under various shear stress conditions. The behavior of fluids can vary based on their inherent nature when subjected to different shear fields. This rheometer belongs to the Couette family, characterized by its utilization of two coaxial cylinders. One of the cylinders rotates at different rotational speeds (varying shear rates), while the necessary torque to prevent the rotation of the other cylinder is measured. The control unit of the device enables the manipulation and measurement of rotational speed, fluid temperature, and desired torque. The system comprises a cup and a set of rotors, three of which are designed to minimize end effects. The fluid level in the cup should be below the upper edge of the rotating Rotor. If necessary, excess fluid can be withdrawn using a syringe.

2.2 Methodology

The nanofluid preparation involved a two-step procedure, which entailed introducing MWCNTs and SDS into crude oil. Different weight ratios of MWCNTs to SDS, specifically 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1, were considered. This was achieved by adding MWCNTs at concentrations of 0.5, 1, and 2 wt.% relative to 0.004, 0.083, and 0.166 g of MWCNTs per 100 ml of crude oil, respectively. To achieve a stable suspension of MWCNTs and SDS in the crude oil, a mechanical stirrer (Southern Labware Inc., S2050-20, USA) was operated at 1500 rpm for a duration of 3 hours. Accurate measurements of each nanomaterial additive and surfactant were made using a precision digital scale (Kern, Germany) before being introduced into the crude oil. Subsequently, the prepared nanofluids underwent agitation using an ultrasonic shaker (Parsonic 2600 s, Iran) for 1 hour to ensure the sustainability of the nano lubricants. After assessing the specified physical properties and weight percentage compositions, the optimal configuration was ascertained. Utilizing a LV rheometer (Anton Paar, ViscoQC, USA) and an 18-spindle viscometer (Brookfield AMETEK SC4-18, USA), measurements were taken for interfacial tension, density, and viscosity. In a bid to comprehend the influencing variables more comprehensively and examine the temperature factor, experiments were conducted at varying temperatures. To examine the stability of the density experiment, the procedure involved an immediate weight measurement for a specific sample volume after stabilizing the nanoparticles in the base fluid. Subsequently, the density value was determined. This process was continued until the surface density matched that of crude oil. To enhance reliability and minimize errors, each set of tests was iterated at least three times. The investigation was extended over time. Figure 1 illustrates the density variations over a period of one day at a concentration of 0.1 wt.%.

In the stage of measuring the salt content in crude oil, as well as obtaining the electrical conductivity of crude oil and increasing or decreasing its electrical conductivity by adding a surfactant and carbon nanotubes, a high-voltage voltage source (DC) was utilized. In this section, the ASTM D3120 standard was employed for salt measurement.

To better compare the effects of adding surfactant and nanoparticles, it was necessary to investigate the rheological properties of crude oil initially. For this purpose, properties such as the density, interfacial tension, and viscosity at temperatures close to crude oil’s wellhead outlet temperature, typically between 40°C and 100°C (the highest possible temperature), were measured. First, the shear stress of crude oil was measured by introducing varying levels of velocity gradient to the fluid at three distinct temperatures, including 40, 60, and 80°C. It was essential to determine whether crude oil exhibited Newtonian or non-Newtonian behavior. According to the obtained results, illustrated in Fig. 2, it was apprehended that as the shear rate was elevated, the shear stress exhibited a nearly linear progression. This consistent relationship between shear stress and shear rate suggested that the fluid’s behavior aligned with the characteristics of a Newtonian fluid.

Following that, the same processes were replicated using crude oil containing MWCNTs and SDS at different ratios, including 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1. The obtained results were then compared to crude oil.

3.1 Viscosity

Multidimensional analysis is imperative to comprehensively examine the impact of viscosity enhancement and assess its beneficial or detrimental effects. Firstly, attention must be directed towards the application of this mixture in the EOR process, either prior to or following the extraction stage. During the EOR phase, during the flooding process, increased viscosity is essential for facilitating optimal displacement of the base fluid and minimizing deviation from the predetermined trajectory. In the subsequent injection phase, which encompasses preliminary purification for desalination units, an inappropriate viscosity increase would lead to undesirable consequences, including escalated pumping costs. Nevertheless, the viscosity augmentation can be mitigated if employed as a chemical agent to mitigate the solubilized components in the crude oil. This is particularly relevant when weighed against the potential enhancement of certain thermophysical properties. A comparative analysis of these factors is essential to attain the most favorable outcome. Hence, the viscosity of the crude oil and surfactant-containing nanofluids were investigated and calculated; the acquired data are provided in Fig. 3.

As it is apprehended, the viscosity at lower temperatures was higher than at elevated temperatures due to the fact that at lower temperatures, the molecules in a fluid tend to have less kinetic energy and move more slowly. In addition, intermolecular forces, such as Van der Waals forces, become more pronounced at lower temperatures, which causes molecules to attract each other and resist movement. The viscosity fluctuations for crude oil across all samples were minimal, and the slopes obtained for each sample displayed a very shallow incline. This confirmed the crude oil’s adherence to Newtonian behavior. The most noticeable fluctuations in the case of crude oil occurred within the shear rate range of 10 to 50 1/s. These variations could potentially be attributed to factors such as measurement inaccuracies, impurities in the samples, the presence of aggregates, and transient phenomena.

Furthermore, while not entirely departing from Newtonian characteristics, certain fluids might exhibit slight shear-thinning or shear-thickening tendencies within specific shear rate intervals. This can lead to minor viscosity deviations within that range while still predominantly exhibiting Newtonian fluid traits. Another influencing factor could be the occurrence of viscosity gradients at extremely low shear rates, particularly around the transition zone between laminar and stagnant flow conditions. These gradients might arise due to effects like wall interactions or particle settling within the fluid. Such gradients have the potential to impact the measured viscosity values [57–59].

The addition of MWCNTs and surfactants into crude oil resulted in an elevation of the base fluid’s viscosity. In the case of 40°C, the viscosity of 2:1 and 1:1 ratio was nearly the same and enhanced by 190% and 182% relative to crude oil, respectively. Meanwhile, adding a 1:2 ratio of MWCNTs to surfactant increased the viscosity by 128%. In the 2:1 ratio, the higher MWCNT concentration could foster a densely connected network within the fluid, yielding a slightly greater viscosity than the 1:1 ratio. Yet, excessive MWCNTs might cause aggregation, lessening the overall viscosity change compared to 1:1. The 1:1 ratio balances MWCNTs and SDS, likely allowing a uniform dispersion due to SDS’s stabilizing effect. This promotes effective network formation and, though slightly less than 2:1 due to fewer MWCNTs, still raises viscosity. The 1:2 ratio, favoring SDS, might hinder network formation due to fewer MWCNTs, resulting in a less connected structure and lower viscosity increase compared to other ratios. Overall, all ratios significantly raised viscosity due to the altered interactions among MWCNTs, SDS, and crude oil. The average viscosities of crude oil, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 ratio of nanofluids were 4.79, 10.92, 13.51, and 13.87 mPa.s, sequentially.

Considering the obtained results for 60°C, at lower shear rates (up to 23 1/s), the 1:2 ratio displayed higher viscosity, likely due to the higher SDS concentration enhancing MWCNT dispersion and interaction with the fluid. However, at higher shear rates (beyond 76 1/s), the 2:1 ratio showed higher viscosity, suggesting that the greater MWCNT concentration resulted in a more resistant network under shear forces. Despite these fluctuations, overall differences were minimal, highlighting the consistent effect of additives on viscosity. The notable viscosity increase (95%, 88%, and 89% for 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 ratios) underscored the joint impact of MWCNT network formation and SDS-fluid interactions. In sequence, the mean viscosities for crude oil and the nanofluid ratios 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 were 4.708, 7.96, 7.66, and 7.70 mPa.s.

At a temperature of 80°C, the viscosity of the 1:1 ratio nanofluid displayed slightly higher viscosity than the 2:1 ratio counterpart, while the 1:2 ratio nanofluid exhibited lower viscosity compared to both other nanofluids. It is worth noting that the crude oil exhibited the lowest viscosity among all the samples. The measured viscosity of the nanofluids at ratios 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 was 5.04, 6.81, and 6.37 mPa.s, respectively. These corresponded to average increases in viscosity of 67%, 125%, and 111%, respectively. In the 1:1 ratio, the balanced presence of MWCNTs and SDS likely resulted in effective dispersion and interaction, leading to slightly higher viscosity than in the 2:1 ratio. The 1:2 ratio, which was skewed toward excess SDS, might have disrupted network formation, resulting in lower viscosity compared to other nanofluids. The intrinsic simplicity of the crude oil’s composition contributed to its lower viscosity. The notable viscosity increases in nanofluids reflected MWCNT entanglement and SDS interactions, collectively influencing internal structure and flow resistance.

3.2 Density

Figure 4 depicts the alterations in density observed in crude oil and all the prepared nanofluids across temperatures of 40, 60, and 80°C. A constant temperature was maintained throughout the calculation phase to ensure experimental consistency, with the apparatus providing averaged computed data at designated temporal intervals. In concurrence with anticipated outcomes, elevation in temperature correlated with a reduction in density. At lower temperatures, the molecules in the fluid have less kinetic energy, causing them to move more sluggishly and be positioned closer together. This results in a higher mass of molecules within a given volume, leading to a higher density. Besides, the outcomes indicated that, at each constant temperature, the density exhibited a slight increase over time. This phenomenon can be elucidated by considering the molecular interactions within the crude oil. At the commencement of the experiment, the fluid’s molecules possess a degree of random kinetic energy and distribution, leading to a certain initial density. As time advances, intermolecular forces and interactions come into play. These interactions encourage molecular clustering and gradual organization over time. The effect of these interactions becomes more pronounced over extended periods, leading to a denser arrangement of molecules. This aggregation of molecules culminates in a higher density, even while the temperature remains stable. Therefore, the observed gradual density increases over time, despite the constant temperature, can be attributed to the progressive development of molecular arrangements and associations within the crude oil [23]. The average density of the crude oil at 40, 60, and 80°C were 0.8369, 0.8305, and 0.8252 g/ml, correspondingly. The density reduction from 40°C to 60°C was just under 1%, while at 80°C, it amounted to a 2% decrease. Fluids generally exhibit only minor density fluctuations at lower temperatures, a fact that has been corroborated by experimental findings.

At a temperature of 40°C, it was observed that nanofluids possessing a 2:1 ratio and a 1:2 ratio exhibited remarkably similar average densities, both measuring around 0.855 g/ml. This could be due to a combination of factors: the nanoparticles might have contributed to an increase in the effective mass of the mixture, thereby counteracting any possible decrease in density caused by the presence of the nanoparticles. Additionally, the nanoparticles could have altered the intermolecular forces within the mixture, resulting in a denser overall configuration. Conversely, the nanofluid characterized by a 1:1 ratio displayed a slightly lower average density of 0.851 g/ml in comparison to the former two. Notably, all the nanofluids showcased densities exceeding that of crude oil, implying their potential for various applications. These findings highlight the intricate interplay between nanoparticle concentrations and resulting nanofluid densities, offering valuable insights for optimizing nanofluid formulations in diverse engineering and industrial contexts. This outcome might arise from a delicate equilibrium between the nanoparticles and the base fluid. An even distribution of nanoparticles might lead to better dispersion and less agglomeration, which in turn could lead to a more homogenous mixture and potentially a more efficient packing arrangement. This improved packing could reduce the overall volume occupied by the mixture, thus causing a slight decrease in density.

Furthermore, the nanoparticles’ size, shape, and surface properties can influence their dispersion within the fluid, affecting the overall density. In the case of the 1:1 ratio, it is possible that the nanoparticles’ characteristics or the specific interactions between nanoparticles and the base fluid led to a different arrangement that impacted the density. When contrasting all the samples with crude oil, the densities of nanofluids with MWCNTs: SDS ratios of 1:2, 2:1, and 1:1 exhibited increments of 2.2%, 2.1%, and 1.7%, respectively.

In the case of density measurement at a temperature of 60°C, the densities of the tested materials followed a descending order: 2:1 ratio nanofluid, 1:2 ratio nanofluid, 1:1 ratio nanofluid, and finally crude oil. Notably, a remarkable similarity was observed between the densities of crude oil and the nanofluid with a 1:1 ratio. In terms of specific values, the mean recorded density for the nanofluid with a 2:1 ratio was 0.833 mg/l, representing a percentage enhancement of 0.41%. Similarly, the nanofluid with a 1:1 ratio had a mean density of 0.831 mg/l, accompanied by a 0.18% enhancement. The nanofluid with a 1:2 ratio exhibited the highest mean density among the three nanofluids, measuring 0.838 mg/l with a 0.95% enhancement. Starting with the observation that the nanofluid with a 2:1 ratio had the highest density; this result can be attributed to the higher concentration of MWCNTs relative to SDS in the 2:1 ratio. The abundance of MWCNTs contributes more mass to the mixture, leading to an overall increase in density.

Furthermore, the elevated concentration of MWCNTs might enhance inter-particle interactions and promote a denser packing arrangement, further elevating the density of the nanofluid. Moving on to the comparison between the 1:2 and 1:1 ratios, the former displayed a higher density. This phenomenon could be justified by the larger proportion of MWCNTs relative to SDS in the 1:2 ratio. The increased concentration of MWCNTs leads to stronger nanoparticle interactions within the fluid, resulting in more significant intermolecular forces contributing to a denser overall structure. The packing of nanoparticles in this configuration could also be more efficient due to the higher concentration of MWCNTs, further driving the higher density. The intriguing similarity in density between crude oil and the nanofluid with a 1:1 ratio can be explained by the balanced composition of this nanofluid. The 1:1 ratio signifies an equilibrium between MWCNTs and SDS. In this equilibrium, the dispersion of nanoparticles is likely more uniform due to the balanced ratio, yet the interactions and packing arrangement might not be as conducive to density enhancement. As a result, the density of the nanofluid with a 1:1 ratio closely approximates that of crude oil.

At a temperature of 80°C, a comprehensive investigation was conducted to analyze the densities of crude oil alongside varying nanoparticle SDS ratios—specifically, 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1. For the 1:2 ratio, the derived average density settled at approximately 0.8279 g/ml, consistently aligned with the crude oil’s average density of around 0.8275 g/ml throughout the experiment. Shifting the focus to the 1:1 ratio, the observed average density was approximately 0.8208 g/ml. Similarly, the 2:1 ratio registered an average density of around 0.8306 g/ml. Importantly, akin to the 1:1 ratio, the 2:1 ratio also exhibited a density increase, indicating an average percentage rise of approximately 0.38%.

A comparative examination of the outcomes yields intriguing insights. At 80°C, the 2:1 ratio showcased the highest average density, followed by the 1:1 ratio, concluding with the 1:2 ratio. This trend underscores that, within the specified temperature range, the 2:1 ratio exhibited the most prominent average density among the three ratios. Notably, the average densities of both the crude oil and the 1:2 ratio were closely aligned. However, the 1:1 ratio notably displayed a significantly lower average density. When considering the comprehensive density changes within the nanofluid compositions, it becomes evident that the respective MWCNT to SDS ratios, specifically 1:2 and 2:1, yielded marginal increases in density, amounting to 0.38% and 0.05%, respectively. However, the scenario stood in stark contrast to the 1:1 nanofluid ratio, as it exhibited a noticeable reduction in overall density, with a decrease of 0.81%. The integration of MWCNT and SDS into the oil matrix creates a complex dynamic. The 1:2 and 2:1 nanofluid ratios likely experienced incremental density increases due to the interplay between the nanoparticles and the oil molecules. This interaction could lead to a more densely packed arrangement of particles, thus slightly increasing the overall density of the mixture.

Additionally, the surfactant SDS may contribute to enhanced particle dispersion, further influencing density.

On the other hand, the perplexing reduction in density seen in the 1:1 nanofluid ratio warrants closer scrutiny. The significant density decrease of 0.81% could be attributed to a few factors. The balanced 1:1 MWCNT to SDS ratio might have influenced the particle distribution and stability within the nanofluid, possibly resulting in a more dispersed configuration of particles. This could lead to a reduction in particle packing efficiency and, consequently, a decrease in density. Furthermore, the properties of SDS might interact with the MWCNTs and oil molecules in a way that disrupts the natural alignment, resulting in a less dense arrangement.

3.3 Interfacial tension

Another important factor is the interfacial tension, which was investigated using a ring method, and the acquired results are provided in Fig. 5. The provided dataset offered insight into the interfacial tension measurements for various ratios of MWCNT and SDS in a crude oil nanofluid. These measurements were taken at different temperatures (40°C, 60°C, and 80°C) and over specific time intervals.

Interfacial tension in a fluid, such as crude oil, tends to be higher at lower temperatures due to the increased molecular cohesion and reduced thermal energy. This leads to stronger attractive forces between the molecules at the interface between two phases, resulting in higher interfacial tension, which can be observed in Fig. 5. There was a slight but observable decrease in the case of 40°C and 60°C, which can be justified by the fact that over time, molecules at the interface can experience rearrangements and interactions that tend to lower interfacial tension, especially when the temperature is not extremely high. The stronger cohesive forces make this effect more prominent at lower temperatures. In the case of 80°C, the higher thermal energy and reduced cohesive forces can counterbalance the tendency for interfacial tension to decrease over time, resulting in a relatively stable value. The overall density for crude oil was 27.271 mN/m at 40°C, 26.234 mN/m at 60°C, and 23.856 mN/m at 80°C.

When focusing on the 1:2 ratio, it is evident that the interfacial tension decreased over time across all temperatures. This trend indicated that the incorporation of this specific ratio of MWCNT and SDS led to a reduction in intermolecular forces at the interface. Notably, this reduction was more pronounced at elevated temperatures (60°C and 80°C), suggesting that higher thermal energy facilitated more effective interactions between the MWCNT and SDS molecules, resulting in a greater decrease in interfacial tension. Similarly, the analysis of the 1:1 ratio of MWCNT to SDS displayed a comparable trend of decreasing interfacial tension over time. This indicated that this particular ratio also contributed to the reduction of intermolecular forces at the interface.

Interestingly, the rate of interfacial tension reduction for the 1:1 ratio differed slightly from that of the 1:2 ratio, implying that the equilibrium between MWCNT and SDS molecules might have impacted the overall effectiveness of interfacial tension reduction.

In contrast, the 2:1 ratio of MWCNT to SDS exhibited distinct behavior. While there was an initial decrease in interfacial tension at 40°C, the values seemed to stabilize at 60°C and 80°C. This stabilization could be attributed to specific interactions between MWCNT and SDS in this ratio, which might have reached equilibrium more rapidly or demonstrated temperature-dependent behaviors that countered the reduction in interfacial tension. A comparison of the three ratios in terms of their influence on interfacial tension indicated that the 1:2 and 1:1 ratios were more effective in reducing intermolecular forces at the interface compared to the 2:1 ratio. This observation aligned with the notion that specific ratios of MWCNT and SDS could lead to more favorable interactions, resulting in a more significant overall reduction in interfacial tension.

3.4 Electrical conductivity

In order to assess the electrical conductivity of crude oil, it was imperative to measure it both in its pure state, without any additives, and with the inclusion of additives. Figure 6 illustrates the impact of increasing voltage on the examined fluid and the corresponding current flow. In crude oil, one of the contributing factors to electrical conductivity is the presence of dissolved salts. The greater the concentration of these salts in the oil, the higher the current intensity. Conversely, the current flow will decrease in the absence of dissolved salts. This phenomenon is attributed to the ionic nature of the dissolved salts, which facilitates better electrical conduction. As observed, the increase in voltage resulted in an augmented current flow due to the presence of various salts. These salts, along with other substances such as water, contributed to the enhanced electrical conductivity of the crude oil. Therefore, a decrease in current indicated the potential settling of dissolved salts within the oil. It is important to note that various components, including base fluids and untreated crude oil, could influence this electrical conduction phenomenon.

In summary, the reduction in current served as an indicator of the accumulation of dissolved salts within the crude oil. The observed increase in current with rising voltage signified a high concentration of salts. Additionally, it should be acknowledged that the presence of other substances, such as water, could also impact the electrical conductivity of the crude oil.

The measurement of current flow through crude oil was conducted by adding an optimal concentration of a surfactant (0.008 g) and an equal proportion of MWCNTs to the base fluid (crude oil) while applying voltage. As observed, the addition of these substances to crude oil resulted in a reduction in current flow. This reduction was attributed to the precipitation of salts present in the oil due to the inclusion of the surfactant and carbon nanotubes. This reduction amounted to 34%, which was considered desirable compared to the lower concentration of additives. The effect of additional concentration was also examined. As anticipated, the measured current flow significantly decreased at concentrations 10 and 20 times higher than the optimal concentration. Increasing the concentration tenfold led to a 76% reduction in current flow, indicating a decrease in salt precipitation within the crude oil. In the case of 0.16 g concentration, a 96% reduction in current flow was achieved. While this reduction was favorable and desirable, it should be noted that the use of carbon nanotubes at this concentration could increase costs, making it economically impractical.

Furthermore, the dispersion of MWCNTs at this concentration might not have yielded optimal results. The experimental results indicated that increasing the concentration of surfactants and carbon nanotubes led to a decrease in current flow. This decrease reflected a reduction in the concentration of dissolved salts in the oil, which was one of the factors contributing to electrical conductivity in oil. The optimal condition for adding surfactants was the concentration that resulted in a 36% reduction in current flow. This percentage reduction was attributed to the decreased presence of dissolved salts in the oil. Increasing the concentration beyond the optimal level had a favorable impact on reducing current flow in terms of salt concentration but was economically impractical and might not have yielded proper dispersion within the oil.

In this study, an investigation was carried out to assess the impact of adding MWCNTs and SDS to crude oil with an anionic base in the EOR process. Various thermophysical properties, including interfacial tension, viscosity, density, electrical conductivity, and the influence of salt concentration on electrical conductivity, were examined. Measurements were conducted using an LV rheometer and an 18-spindle. To comprehend the effects of the added substances to the base fluid (crude oil), a composite model was utilized, combining the two additives in equal weight percentages while keeping one of the substances constant. The effects of reducing and increasing the concentration of the other substance were also examined.

Regarding viscosity, at 40°C, the nanofluids with MWCNTs:SDS ratios of 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 exhibited significant increases of approximately 128%, 182%, and 190% compared to crude oil. These viscosity enhancements were also observed at higher temperatures, with increases of 88%, 89%, 95% at 60°C, and 67%, 111%, and 125% at 80°C for the same ratios.

In terms of density, the nanofluids displayed varying effects. At 40°C, the densities increased by 2.2%, 1.7%, and 2.1% for the 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 ratios, respectively, compared to crude oil. At 60°C, smaller increases of 0.95%, 0.18%, and 0.41% were observed, while at 80°C, the 1:2 ratio displayed a 0.38% increase, the 1:1 ratio showed a decrease of -0.81%, and the 2:1 ratio increased by 0.05%.

The study also found that interfacial tension decreased over time for all MWCNTs:SDS ratios at all temperatures, with more pronounced reductions at 40°C and 60°C for the 1:2 and 1:1 ratios. At 80°C, the 2:1 ratio exhibited the highest reduction in interfacial tension.

Furthermore, the addition of surfactant and MWCNTs led to a reduction in the electrical conductivity of crude oil. The optimal concentration resulted in a 34% reduction in current flow, while higher concentrations showed even greater reductions, with a 96% decrease observed at the highest concentration.

In conclusion, the study found that the 1:1 ratio of MWCNTs and SDS provided the most favorable outcomes. Additionally, it was clear that as the concentration of MWCNTs increased while keeping the surfactant constant, both interfacial tension and viscosity increased. However, when examining changes in viscosity and interfacial tension at different temperatures with similar composite ratios, fluctuations were observed without a discernible pattern. It is worth noting that although increasing the concentration of MWCNTs and surfactants led to a further reduction in electrical conductivity, adding MWCNTs was not cost-effective.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific funding.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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Optimizing Nanofluid Formulations for Enhanced Thermophysical Properties in Crude Oil: A Study of MWCNTs and SDS in EOR Processes

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1. Introduction

2. Experimental section

2.1 Materials and rigs

2.2 Methodology

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Viscosity

3.2 Density

3.3 Interfacial tension

3.4 Electrical conductivity

4. Conclusion

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