The Ornamental white marble use and reuse at the Ottoman palaces of Algiers’ Regency: New knowledge to a provenance study

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3748492/v1

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The Ornamental white marble use and reuse at the Ottoman palaces of Algiers’ Regency: New knowledge to a provenance study

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3748492/v1

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published 16 Apr, 2024

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This multi-disciplinary study examines from a historical and technical approach the supply of ornamental white marble in Ottoman Algiers between the 17th and 19th centuries. Our systematic analysis of Ottoman Regency administration archives, in particular the correspondence between the provincial chiefs of Algiers and Cherchell dating from 1824 to 1825^AD, reveals two completely different supply routes for white ornamental marble to Algiers' building sites: the first identifies Genoa as the unique source of imports, while the second confirms the use of the remains from the ancient Roman city of Cherchell/Caesarea. In order to verify these provenances of ornamental white marble, petrographic and geochemical analyses were carried out on fifteen (15) samples of white marble from the decorative elements of the Algiers Citadel: a palatial complex whose construction and subsequent completion correspond to the same period as these exchanges of official correspondence. Experimental results confirm the Italian provenance of some samples, particularly from Carrara, while others appear to be of local origin from Filfila.

Algiers’ Regency

Ottoman palaces

Ornamental white marble

Marble provenance

Isotopic analysis

Chemical analysis

The palaces of Algiers’ Medina arouse a real interest in quality of architectural heritage inherited from the Ottoman period (Golvin 1988, Ravéreau 1989, Missoum 2003, Abdessemed-Foufa 2005, 2012, Vidal-Bué 2014, Piaton 2018), due to their architectural and decorative richness. Since 1992, they have been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, along with the city where they are located (Fig. 1), by preserving their authenticity and their originality. However, scientific research on their decorative stones and the reality of its provenance, especially white marble, still remains a rarely explored field. For this purpose, this multidisciplinary study focuses on the ornamental white marble provenance of the Ottoman architecture of Algiers and its identification, in the aim to enrich the historical, technical and patrimonial knowledge about the Ottoman architecture of Algiers’ Regency, particularly its decorative elements in white marble.

Due to the economic richness of Algiers’ Regency between the 17th and 19th centuries, its Medina construction had known a large use of marble, which reflected the Ottoman wealth in Algiers. It was the most recommended material for various forms of use (Fig. 2), paving interior courtyards and stair steps, embellishing basins and fountains and decorating window frames, door pilasters, as well as the columns of patios and gardens (Golvin 1988, Ravéreau 1989, Chergui 2011).

The ornamental white marble in the ottoman architecture of Algiers: what source of supply?

According to scholars and historical sources, the marble industry seems to have been rarely established in Algiers’ Regency, to this end, considerable quantities of white marble were supplied from other countries (De Haëdo 1612, Shaw 1830, Fournel 1848, Chergui 2011). Undoubtedly, its position at the border of the Mediterranean encouraged the transportation of this heavy material from the northern shores, mainly from Italy, as gifts, maritime captures or simply orders, and transported from the ports of Genoa or Livorno to the ports of the Regency (Chergui 2011, Bouzid 2015, Vidal-Bué 2014, Eudel 1902). S. Chergui (2007) was provided with precious indications on the Italian origin of considerable quantities of marble used in the construction site of the New Mosque of Algiers (1656–1666^AD). Thus, depending on their dimensions, the raw blocks of marble were either previously worked in the workshops of Carrara or finished on the construction site. Even in the Roman times, the marble industry was very little exploited on this land. Apart from the Filfila and Cap de Garde deposits, the import action was already practiced from Italie and Asia Minor towards North Africa (Shaw 1830; Pensabene 1982).

Although the provenance of this ornamental stone and its forms of supply are reported in some narrative sources (De Haëdo 1612, Shaw 1830, Clausolles 1831, Estry 1845, MacCarthy 1830, Rozet 1833, De Paradis 1898) , many uncertainties hover around it, thus requiring further research. Moreover, the marble reuse from the antique ruins deserves thus to be investigated, given that this form of supply was certainly practiced at the arrival of the Ottomans in Algiers (Cresti 1982) . As a proof, the first head of the Regency Khair Ed'din Barberousse, carried out the extension of the port of Algiers by the reuse of construction’s materials extracted from the Penôn (Rang Des Adrets et Denis 1837, Estry 1845) , even the construction of the first Ottoman religious and civil buildings (mosques or palaces) that was mostly based on the reuse of buildings and decorative materials brought from the nearest antique site of Rusgûniae (Chergui 2011) . During his visit to Algiers’ Medina around 1550^AD, the French geographer Nicloas de Nicolaï, described the beauty of the royal palace galleries, which were supported by columns made from various types of marble, assuming that they came from the reuse (De Haëdo 1612, Cresti 1982) . In fact, the ornamental marble’s reuse by Ottomans was justifying by their fascination towards antique architectural elements. But also, they thought rarely to exploit the marble quarries, where they settled, so they considered the extraction and cutting of marble, and its transportation to the building sites, as complicated procedures that could hinder the political and geographical expansion of their Empire (Vatin 2000) .

However, there is wide historical controversy over the supply of white marble to the Algiers’ regency. As example, Charles Ferraud (1877) testified that the head of Constantine’s Province El Hadj Ahmed Bey, charged a Genoese Jewish merchant to supply marble from Carrara for the construction of his palace in 1821^AD, while M.P. Clausolles (1831) confirmed that this head had achieved his palace just by reusing from the Roman vestiges, such as of Hippo-Regios, of Cirta or even of Tunis.

Ottoman archival data on the ornamental white marble supply in Algiers’ regency:

The trigger for this study came from the discovery of some indications about the ornamental white marble supply during our systematic exploitation of the Ottoman administration’s archives preserved at the Center of National Archives in Algiers (C.N.A). These archival sources offer first-hand information on the white marble supply in the studied period.

The examination on registers of import-export between Algiers’ Regency and several countries, even from Europe, dating from 1824 – 1825^AD(1240^AH), revealed evidence of the import of white marble in an order for products transported by sea from Genoa to Algiers (Fig.3). The order is inscribed at the end of an archive document (filed in the register: N° 308/ Beyt El Beylik/CNA‎), entitled as follows: "Declaration of sending money to --- Tābet Ben Tabbī with the ship of Mūssa ---, on the 23^rd Rabīʽ ‎al-thānū 1242 Hidjrī". The highlighted sentence is translated from dialectic Arabic as follows: " ---- With the above-mentioned money sent to this one for the purchase of ‎goods by sea --- the money sent to Tabet Ben Tabbi from Mohamed ---- sixty Sultani -- of the goods sent bought ‎by the above-mentioned money -- he buys me by these money stone (marble) columns from Genoa".

An additional examination on the Ottoman archives at the National Library of Algeria (B.N) was necessary, mainly on the register containing correspondences between the Ottoman provinces’ heads, such as of Cherchel and Algiers. The correspondence (filed under: N°15/Boite 3206/ Correspondances/Service manuscrits/BNA) sent by Kāïd M'ḥarūssat Cherchel (head of the province of the town of Cherchel) to the Waqīl al- Khardj (Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Regency of Algiers); in the end of Dhu al-Hijja in the year 1234^AH/1826^AD, attests the transport by boat to the port of Algiers for fourteen white marble columns taken from the ancient ruins of Caesarea, under the instructions of Yahya Agha ^[1] (Fig.4). The highlighted sentence in the correspondence inscribes the reuse action, translated from dialectic Arabic as follows: "We inform you about the ‎marble columns that the ship brought with the cutter of the stones before and they are fourteen of our master ‎Yahya Agha and we ordered the sculptors to put them back in shape..."

However, these various sources and historical studies are still insufficient to provide a definitive answer to the question of the provenance of white marble in the Regency of Algiers. Furthermore, in situ observation of certain architectural elements (columns or pilasters) in white marble from the surviving Roman remains at Caesarea reveals reshaped sections that undoubtedly date from the Ottoman period. However, the large size of these antique elements compared to those of the Ottoman ones makes it difficult to distinguish them from the Ottoman architecture of Algiers. At this stage of the study, it is not yet possible to be sure that these elements have been completely re-cut in the case of replacement and devoid of any antique sculpture (Fig.5).

In order to successfully identify the provenance of ornamental white marble in Ottoman architecture in Algiers, it is absolutely essential to proceed with experimentation. This allows us to convincingly eliminate all possible speculation.

Case study: the ornamental white marble of ‎ the Citadel of Algiers - Al-Qaṣaba -

The Citadel is a palace-fortress located in the upper part of the Algiers’ Medina; it is last evidence ‎of the Ottoman presence in Algiers. It was constructed in the 16^th century, as a defensive building characterizing by a purely military architecture. Until 1817-1830^AD, where its conversion into a palace-fortress was accomplished due the construction of two palatial buildings by "Ḥuṣayn Bāshā", the last Dey of Algiers. Besides, archives register on the daily expenses of Algiers royal court, dated between 1817^AD and 1818^AD, demonstrates an important expense for the supply of more than 30 marble blocks, 387 pilasters and 425 columns of white marble (Khellassi, 2007) . In addition the original military structures (barracks, powder magazine, bastions, Janissary quarter) and religious buildings (mosques), the palatial architecture can be seen through the Dey Palace (the palace of the sovereignty between 1817-1830^AD) and the Beys Palace (the reception palace of the provinces heads of the Algiers’ Regency) (Abdessemed-Foufa 2012, Chergui 2017) (Fig. 6).

Such as all the Ottoman palaces in Algiers, these two palaces underwent several reconversion operations during the French colonization (1830-1962^AD), undergoing a distortion to its architecture, notably to its decorative elements (destruction, disappearance). Since the 1980’s, they have undergone several restorations works, indeed the whole citadel, to ensure their conservation.

As in all the Ottoman palaces of Algiers, the provenance of the ornamental white marble used in the Citadel, particularly in its two palaces, remains unclear. We therefore choose this palatial complex as our focus of study. This choice is justified by the fact that the completion of work on these complex dates from the same period as the reuse and import actions recorded in the archival documents that we have examined (1824 – 1826^AD).

The sampling artefacts:

Fifteen (15) marble samples were carried from a storage of decorative and ornamental elements in a state of destruction ‎ ‎i.e., columns, pilasters and window frames within the citadel (Fig. 7), ensuring that no archaeological, historiographic, or aesthetic value was damaged or lost. The samples were taken from various fragments of the marble architectural elements of the Citadel's two palaces. They are illustrated in Fig. 8, and they are identified and sorted in a table (Table.1) for a clear description.

Table 1

Description of the fifteen (15) ornamental white marble samples carried from the Citadel of Algier
Designation of the sample ‎		Type of architectural element sampled‎	Dimensions (cm x cm with round number)
01	P01	Abacus of a column	2 x 2,5
02	P02	Pilaster	2,5 x 3
03	P03	Window frame	2 x 2,5
04	P04	Door frame	3 x 4
05	P05	Door frame	2 x 3,5
06	P06	Abacus of a column	2 x 3,5
07	P07	Pilaster	3 x 3,5
08	P08	Window frame	2,5 x 3,5
09	CI01	Abacus of a column	2 x 2
10	CI02	Door frame	2 x 2,5
11	CI03	Door frame	2,5 x 2,5
12	CI04	Pilaster	2 x 3
13	CI05	Abacus of a column	2 x 3,5
14	CI06	Window frame	2 x 4
15	CI07	Pilaster	2 x 4

First of all, the observation in situ with a human eye and then, with the use of a magnifying glass is necessary to record the primitive information on the color and the texture of the sample. Indeed, all samples are white and fine-grained marbles. No impurities can be observed macroscopically.

The experimental methods

The laboratory experiments were based on the non-destructive mineralogical and geo-chemical characterization, traditionally applied on the identification of the inherited marbles, and widely described and explained by recent published researches (Al-Bashaireh et Al-Housan 2014, Mahindad et Hamiane 2016, Antonelli et Lazzarini 2015, Prochaska 2023). As one single method of experiment investigation will be not sufficient to safely determine the origin of the studied white marble samples, these different methods and a subsequent statistical evaluation was applied as follow:

Petrography:

The size of the samples supplied allowed the preparation of a thin section (30µ max). The polarizing microscope on thin marble sections enables us to apprehend the relevant petrographic characteristics of the analyzed samples, thus an evaluation of the MGS (maximum grain size) of each sample (Antonelli and Lazzarini 2015, Bomblet and Blanc 2016, Giresse, Bromblet and de Barrau 2020). The operation was carried out in Algeria at the Geology and Mines Research Office (ORGM) in coordination with the geology department of the Bab-Ezzouar University (USTHB) of Algiers. The equipment used consists of a LEITZ polarizing microscope and an OPTIKA binocular.

Petrographic analysis allowed us to examine the texture of each of the marble samples investigated, comparing them first with petrographic data from presupposed quarries, such as Carrara, Asia Minor, and some local deposits (Filfila).

In order to achieve effective reliability of our results, petrographic analysis requires the variability of methods applied in marble provenance studies, including stable isotope analysis, chemical analysis of trace elements and statistical analysis.

The stable isotope analysis:

The analysis of the stable isotopes of O and C is a standard method in marble provenance analysis. Performing this analysis is now the fundamental step in any study of marble provenance. It allows us to determine the isotopic content of O and C, regarded as the DNA specific to each marble deposit. The mass-spectrometry analyses were carried out in the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin.

The chemical analysis:

The chemical analysis of trace elements had been carried out prior to the application of isotopic analysis. The isotope analysis, coupled with the petrographic study, is not sufficient to provide clear answers to the question of the marble's provenance. This is due to the overlapping petrographic and isotopic characteristics of certain white marbles, making it impossible to distinguish between them. Chemical analysis of trace elements is one of the new methods used to identify inherited white marbles. The trace element analysis of the sample was done by ICP-MS analysis after dissolving the carbonate phase by hot HNO3. For this investigation the samples were analyzed in the laboratories of the Technical University of Vienna. The elements to be defined in this operation are (Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, Cr, V, Y, Cd, Ba, La, Ce, Pr, Dy, Ho, Yb, Pb, U).

The analytical data obtained through the cross-referencing of these three previous analyses is evaluated and processed in a multi-variate statistical analysis using STATISTICA and SPSS software. The result is an accurate distinction between the analyzed marble samples.

The petrographic characteristics

The investigated marble samples comprise a very homogeneous group of fine-grained very white and high-quality marbles. The microscope observation (Fig. 9) reveals a polygonal texture in manufacture for the majority of marble samples. These are real marbles, of metamorphic origin and mono-mineral composition (Lorenc & Lorenc, 2018).

Due to their textural purity and clear whiteness, the marbles analyzed contain very low quantities of minor minerals and accessories (Fig. 10). Their average grain size varied from 0.2 mm to 0.7 mm to 0.8 mm, reflecting the high degree of metamorphism they have undergone. Crystals, either elongated or polygonal in shape, are present in the samples (CI06, CI07, P05, P06). They correspond to muscovite (CI06, CI07) (Fig. 11), sanidine (P05) (Fig. 12) and pyrite (P06). Other opaque minerals are present in the form of xenomorphic crystals. A low content of dolomite and quartz is detected in (P01, CI02, CI03). The content of these various minerals does not exceed 1% in all samples, with sizes of less than 0.3 mm. The rest of the samples show a calcite mineralogical composition of 100%.

As suggestion, all the samples present the major characteristics of the Carrara marble (Antonelli & Lazzarini, 2015; Prochaska & Attanasio, 2022) such as: the calcite as the main component for the marble destined for the ornamentation, with a very fine granulometry (between 0,2 and 0,5 mm), the MGS (maximum size of the grains) is not less than ‎0,5 mm, crystals largely polygonal, with a frontal contact in a straight, or sometimes curved way (Antonelli & Lazzarini, 2015; Giresse, Bromblet, & de Barrau, 2020; Prochaska & Attanasio, 2022)

However, the analysis of fine-grained marbles that may overlap petrographically with Carrara, such as those from Dokemeon and Pentelikon (Anevlavi et al., 2022), requires the use of geochemical variables applied later, notably trace element analysis. In this case, it should be noted that only the low Mn content can help distinguish Carrara marble from these other two deposits (Prochaska et Attanasio 2022). Regarding local marble, the Filfila deposit is more similar to the investigated marbles. This white marble is recognized for its similarity to Carrara marble in terms of its polygonal texture, its mineralogical composition consisting essentially of 99% calcite, with a slight presence of minerals such as pyrite and sometimes dolomite with a content of < 1%, and its grain size ranging from 0.2 mm to 0.5 mm (Fig. 10) (Ramdane et Dahmane 2017).

The analytical geochemical data

Table.2 lists the experimental results of the analyses, including a large set of trace elements and the isotopic composition of O and C of the marble samples.

Table .2 The analytical results of the analysed marble samples. Trace elements data are given in ppm. Stable isotopes are defined in the δ quotation.

	MgCO₃	Mn		Sr	Cr	V	Y	Cd	Ba	La	Ce	Pr	Dy	Ho	Yb	Pb	U	δ¹⁸O	δ¹³C
P01	1,51	9,434	54,76	167,92	1,955	0,167	1,432	0,493	1,964	0,660	0,591	0,106	0,111	0,028	0,082	0,706	0,010	0,106	0,111
P02	1,93	20,161	75,72	202,20	2,246	0,335	1,066	0,476	1,904	0,379	0,451	0,075	0,098	0,022	0,063	0,352	0,034	0,075	0,098
P03	1,68	14,655	166,74	197,02	2,098	0,623	0,885	0,248	2,741	0,392	0,346	0,072	0,088	0,020	0,057	1,681	0,047	0,072	0,088
P04	1,52	12,804	57,73	158,44	2,646	0,344	0,754	0,281	1,512	0,260	0,199	0,043	0,063	0,015	0,045	2,120	0,012	0,043	0,063
P05	1,49	14,314	40,20	169,45	2,981	0,277	0,755	0,334	1,564	0,236	0,263	0,043	0,061	0,015	0,046	0,700	0,033	0,043	0,061
P06	1,36	24,755	40,26	143,41	2,452	1,264	2,146	0,166	2,307	0,769	0,650	0,136	0,180	0,041	0,124	0,934	0,505	0,136	0,180
P07	1,44	24,264	31,88	159,17	2,407	0,353	1,215	0,315	1,960	0,467	0,324	0,070	0,102	0,025	0,070	0,422	0,059	0,070	0,102
P08	1,61	11,569	37,72	153,96	3,147	0,349	0,984	0,279	1,541	0,383	0,350	0,065	0,082	0,020	0,056	0,457	0,034	0,065	0,082
C101	1,30	8,648	133,43	158,03	2,250	0,290	0,939	0,457	2,465	0,609	0,335	0,113	0,110	0,023	0,066	0,788	0,098	0,113	0,110
C102	1,56	16,170	30,24	170,76	2,849	0,244	0,968	0,310	1,228	0,291	0,312	0,056	0,080	0,019	0,062	0,253	0,030	0,056	0,080
C103	1,51	15,838	56,70	155,37	2,462	0,372	1,561	0,315	1,766	0,581	0,659	0,114	0,147	0,033	0,092	0,397	0,062	0,114	0,147
C104	1,38	28,119	88,76	194,62	2,854	0,632	1,153	0,145	1,999	0,426	0,329	0,066	0,092	0,022	0,072	0,463	0,063	0,066	0,092
C105	1,41	10,742	64,63	134,77	2,207	0,288	0,602	0,243	0,939	0,265	0,255	0,048	0,061	0,013	0,038	0,337	0,008	0,048	0,061
C106	1,44	9,200	18,91	183,93	2,892	0,282	0,696	0,341	2,560	0,229	0,228	0,041	0,061	0,014	0,044	0,210	0,076	0,041	0,061
C107	1,63	19,780	69,12	190,26	2,826	0,512	0,494	0,191	1,280	0,160	0,235	0,030	0,045	0,010	0,031	0,785	0,098	0,030	0,045

Evaluation of the stable isotope results

To check the analyzed composition of the marble artefacts against other well-known ancient fine-grained marbles, the data of the investigated samples were compared with those of Pentelikon, Dokimeion and Carrara.

Furthermore, some stable isotope data of the marbles from Filfila are available and incorporated in the considerations as a local white marble (Antonelli et al., 2010). The fine-grained marbles from Paros (Lychnites) and those from Göktepe were excluded a priori from the evaluation for their obvious incompatible isotopic composition compared to the investigated marble samples.

In Fig. 13, the stable isotope diagram of the investigated marble sample and some data fields of ancient quarries or quarry areas are presented. The compositional fields of the chosen marble producing locations exhibit a strong overlap in the isotopic composition. However, the investigated marble samples plot clearly in the field of the marbles from Carrara and from Afyon/ Dokimeion (Prochaska & Attanasio, 2022). The compositional fields of the quarry regions displayed are presented as statistical 90% ellipses. The data field of the Filfila marbles is a hand-drawn ellipse because the low number of data available from literature (Antonelli et al., 2010).

Multivariate statistical calculation of the obtained data

The multivariate calculation with the help of the program packages STATISTICA and SPSS has been carried out by linear discriminant function analysis, in order to achieve a simultaneous evaluation of a large number of analyzed components by statistical computation. To distinguish between the selected locations, the following discriminant variables were used: δ¹⁸O, δ¹³C, Mg, Mn, Fe, Sr, Cr, V, Cd, La, Ce, Pr, Dy and Yb. The analytical results are graphically displayed in Fig. 14.

It is necessary to note that this graph is a two-dimensional simplification of a multidimensional system, and it is only an approximation of a multidimensional reality. The exact results are those numerically obtained by the statistical procedure presented in table.2. The presented statistical parameters clearly are in accordance with an origin of the investigated marbles from the Carrara quarries in Italy and any alternative can be safely excluded (Fig. 14).

The statistical discrimination analysis clearly shows the best fit for an assignment to the Carrara quarries while other similar international marbles can safely be excluded.

Indeed, the import of decorative white marble from Genoa, mentioned in the import-export archives of the Ottoman administration in Algiers (Fig.3), is certainly confirmed. Between the 17^th and 19^th centuries, this Italian port city was a major trader of white Carrara marble to the Maghreb countries (Santamaria, 2004; Franchini Guelfi, Santamaria, Silvestri, Berresford‎, & Bertelloni, 2011; Pensabene, Domingo, & Zevi, 2020) . The same is true for the action of reusing the ancient marble from Caesarea mentioned in the correspondence addressed by the Cherchell provincial chief to the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Algiers (Fig.4), which is in turn authenticated by our experiments. It's also important to note that most of the white marble architectural elements found at Caesarea were supplied from the colony of Luna, between the time of Emperor Juba II (25-23^BC) and the time of Emperor Ptolemy (23^BC - 40^AD), periods during which the city underwent great urban and architectural expansion (Pensabene 1982).

For the local marbles, the Filfila quarries exhibit a lighter O isotope composition in general and show only a minor overlap with the Carrara marbles. For this purpose, further investigations (chemistry, petrography) certainly could help to make this assignment even more clear.

If this provenance is confirmed, it opens up new debates in relation to historical speculation on the absence of the marble industry in Ottoman Algiers. This is all the more reasonable if we also take into consideration the migration of Italian craftsmen between the 17^th and 19^th centuries to the lands of the Ottoman Empire, of which Algiers was a part. On the other hand, it's highly possible that this marble was reused from the ancient site of Cuicul (Djemila), which attests to its use in late Roman times (Antonelli et al. 2010; Herrmann et al. 2012).

The history of ornamental white marble in the architecture of the Ottoman palaces of the Regency of Algiers is as complex as it is unknown. This led us not only to carry out historical investigations, but also to experiment with the stone itself, in order to demonstrate the data relating to its provenance.

The historical study of ancient textual documents and narrative sources relating to the Algiers Regency has highlighted the absence of a marble industry in the country between the 16th and early 19th centuries, pointing to other sourcing actions such as: reusing marble from nearby Roman sites, or importing it from the northern shores of the Mediterranean, particularly from Italy, where Carrara is indicated as the main supplier of white ornamental marble for the Regency of Algiers.

Archival exploitation of the import-export registers of the Ottoman administration in Algiers, in particular the correspondence between the heads of the provinces of the Algiers Regency, dating from 1824 – 1825^AD, reveals two completely different supply circuits for ornamental white marble. These were either import orders from Genoa, or re-use from the ancient site of Caesarea/Cherchell.

This provenance study involved comparing our archival data with a petrographic and geochemical characterization of fifteen (15) white marble samples extracted from decorative elements in a state of destruction from the palatial complex at the Algiers Citadel. The choice of this complex is explained by the fact that its completion dates from the same period as the reuse and import actions recorded in the archival documents we examined (1824 - 1825^AD).

The combination of petrographic, isotopic and chemical analyses of trace elements, evaluated by multi-variate statistical analysis, has provided us with precise results relating to the identification of Italian provenance, particularly Carrara, for the majority of the marble fragments investigated. As for the local provenance, it seems that Filfila marble is strongly revealed in certain fragments, although this needs further confirmation given the lack of data in the literature concerning the geochemical characteristics of this deposit.

Moreover, the presence of Asia Minor marble in the Ottoman architecture of Algiers is a mystery that deserves to be explored in future for another collected samples. It is quite possible that the Turkish emperors of Algiers ordered this marble to decorate their palaces (Vatin 2000, Bacqué-Grammont 1987) . It also appears that Asia Minor had delivered white marble to Caesarea in the age of Septimius Severus (2^nd - 3^rd AD-JC), notably from Dokemeon. In addition to the Carrara marble brought from the port of Genoa, the Dokemeon marble may have been reused from Caesarea to Algiers during the Ottoman period (Pensabene 1982).

The multidisciplinary approach adopted for this study has enabled us to obtain not only technical but also historical information on the supply of white marble in the Mediterranean basin between the 17^th and 19^th centuries. The present research has motivated further in-depth investigation into the provenance of ornamental white marble in the Ottoman palaces of Algiers. Apart from confirming the Carrarian origin of some of the white marbles, there are still gaps to be made in further verifying the local provenance, materialized by the Filfila quarries for other samples. Furthermore, the dating factor of the investigated marble samples will certainly enable us in the future to distinguish between reused marble and imported marble, particularly in the case of marble from Carrara.

Author Declarations

Funding details. The research was supported by Direction Générale de la Recherche Scientifique et du Développement Technologique (D.G.R.S.D.T), Algeria.

Disclosure statement. The authors declare no competing interests.

Data availability statement. The marble samples were carried from a storage of decorative and ornamental elements in a state of destruction ‎ (columns, capitals, door and window frames)‎, ensuring that no architectural, historiographic, or aesthetic value was damaged or lost. All relevant data are within the manuscript. The fifteen (15) marble samples are stored ‎in the ETAP Laboratory (Environment and Technology for Architecture and Cultural Heritage), in the ‎Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning (I.A.U), University Blida 1, Algeria. On request, the samples are available ‎for scientific re-evaluation. The archives in supports (figures 3 and 4) are available on request at the Manuscript Department of the National Library of Algiers (B.N), and in the archive service "El-Beylik" of the Ottoman administration of the Algiers Regency, at the Center of the National Archives of Algeria (C.N.A). All documents were consulted and taken in scan capture after an official authorization granted in the context of this study.

Data deposition. The archival document supporting fig.3 is available on microfilm format under the reference of: the register N°380 / Beyt El Beylik / CNA, in the archive service "El-Beylik" of the Ottoman administration of the Algiers Regency, at the Center of the National Archives of Algeria. The archive in support of fig.4 is available in paper format at the Manuscript Department of the National Library of Algiers (B.N), under the reference: N°15/ Box3206 /Correspondences /Service manuscripts/ BN‎.

‎Geolocation information. The study covers on the old Ottoman city of Algiers, which is currently the commune of Casbah of Algiers, belongs to the capital of Algeria.

Acknowledgments. We would like to thank the Ministry of Culture and Arts of Algeria for the sampling permission from the storage of the remains of the ornamental white marble of the Citadel, and to thank the Cultural Property Management and Development Authority (O.G.E.B.C) for their collaboration to facilitate the mission. We are also grateful to National Office of Geological and Mining Research of Boumerdes (O.R.G.M) to the sample preparation, and to Direction Générale de la Recherche Scientifique et du Développement Technologique Algeria (D.G.R.S.D.T) to have funded the research. The polarizing microscope observations will not be completed without efforts of Pr. Omar Kolli, in the department of geology, Université des sciences et de la technologie Houari-Boumédiène (U.S.T.H.B), Algeria, so we thank him. the archive service "El-Beylik" of the Ottoman administration of the Algiers Regency, at the Center of the National Archives of Algeria (C.N.A), and even the Manuscript Department of the National Library of Algeria (B.N) are also gratefully acknowledged.

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Yahya Agha was the head of the army and internal affairs in the Medina of Algiers between 1822-1825^AD, and the husband of the eldest daughter of Ḥuṣayn Dey, the ultimate Dey of Algiers.

No competing interests reported.

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The Ornamental white marble use and reuse at the Ottoman palaces of Algiers’ Regency: New knowledge to a provenance study

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials and Methods

The sampling artefacts:

The experimental methods

Petrography:

The stable isotope analysis:

The chemical analysis:

The petrographic characteristics

The analytical geochemical data

Results

Evaluation of the stable isotope results

Multivariate statistical calculation of the obtained data

Discussion of the results

Conclusion and Perspective of research

Declarations

References

Footnotes

Additional Declarations

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