Evaluation and test of the reliability and validity of the Chinese defeat scale in the elite athletes of Chinese universities

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3790091/v1

Download PDF

Article

Evaluation and test of the reliability and validity of the Chinese defeat scale in the elite athletes of Chinese universities

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3790091/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

You are reading this latest preprint version

Purpose

To test the reliability and validity of the "Defeat Scale" and explore whether the scale is suitable for use in surveys of college athletes.

Methods

A total of 226 athletes from five universities in China were selected for evaluation using the defeat scale. Factor analysis and correlation analysis were used to explore the reliability and validity of the defeat scale.

Results

Exploratory factor analysis showed that two factors could be extracted from this scale, namely a sense of decadence and a sense of low achievement. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model fit of the two factors was excellent (X²/DF = 2.809, RMSEA = 0.092, SRMR = 0.054, NFI = 0.891, IFI = 0.927, CFI = 0.926, TLI = 0.910). The convergent validity AVE values are 0.579 and 0.505 respectively, AVE > 0.5, and the combined reliability is 0.946 and 0.746 respectively. Both > 0.7 indicate good convergence effect. The arithmetic square roots of AVE, 0.760 and 0.710, are both higher than the absolute value of the correlation coefficient between the two dimensions, 0.30, indicating good discriminant validity; and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient of defeat is 0.931, and the Spearman-Brown coefficient is 0.888.

Conclusion

The defeat scale has good reliability and validity among college athletes.

Biological sciences/Psychology

Health sciences/Health care

Defeat

Colleges and universities

Athlete

Reliability

Validity

According to the 2020 China Mental Health Blue Book report, the detection rate of depression among adolescents in my country in 2020 was 24.6%, of which the detection rate of severe depression was 7.4%. Moreover, adolescent depression will also increase the risk of related mental diseases in adulthood^1–2. Athletes look full of sunshine and vitality, and are often considered to be "strong in physique and will", but they often fall into self-denial and carry a heavy psychological burden. Studies have shown that athletes have a higher suicide rate than the general population. Athletes are a special group. It is common for athletes to commit suicide due to psychological problems around the world. High-level athletes are under pressure from performance, training, pressure from spectators or fans, etc. etc. The most obvious thing is that online violence has been affecting athletes, making it easier for them to kill themselves. Under the pressure of public opinion that China can only win but not lose, the sports life of athletes has become shorter. Thomas Joyner, a professor of psychology at Florida State University, said in research that blunting pain allows athletes to learn "how to hurt themselves³." Therefore, the issues of depression and suicide in athletes are often ignored, but in the new media era, it is more Many cases of depression and suicide among athletes have been exposed. For example, in the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Liu Xiang withdrew from the competition and failed to realize his desire to win the championship at home. The pressure of public opinion swept over him. He was once so depressed that smoking and drinking were useless; in the 2012 London Olympics After achieving good results, Michael Phelps not only had no joy, but spent most of his time fighting severe depression, and even had thoughts of suicide; FIFA investigated 1,602 people from 16 countries during the epidemic With area athletes, it was found that 22% of 468 female athletes had symptoms consistent with a diagnosis of depression, and 13% of 1,134 male athletes had symptoms, with an additional 18% of female athletes and 16% of male athletes experiencing symptoms. Exhibited symptoms of anxiety disorder; 68 per cent of Canada's world-class swimmers were reported to have suffered from severe depression before competition, while 34 per cent experienced depression afterward; elite athletes in Australia and France^4–5, the prevalence of mental disorders ranges from 17–45%. Although many athletes are still fighting tenaciously against the disease, in the field of studying athletes' mental health, scholars pay more attention to the training and cultivation of athletes' psychological skills. On the road of exploration of mental health, the main focus is on the field of exercise psychology. Therefore, it has become an important issue for us to pay more attention to the psychological problems of athletes, help them properly deal with and prevent these problems, and reduce the probability of their occurrence.

Defeat originally came from the evolutionary theory of depression, and its concept was based on the social hierarchy of human depression.The description was developed and is defined as a feeling of defeat in a social struggle, reduction in social rank, or loss^6–7. As a factor that seriously affects the physical and mental health development of individuals, it has received more and more attention in recent years. Previous research has shown that feelings of defeat, self-criticism and despair are strongest during periods of depression and self-harm. The defeat Scale was proposed by Gilbert and Allan in 1998 to describe the feeling of failure and loss of rank. It has shown good reliability and validity among specific groups such as foreign students and patients with depression^8–9. Chinese scholar Zhu Xiujuan defines it as: defeat and failure are an emotional state caused by one's own abilities being inferior to others, that is, in the process of comparing with others, one's own performance or abilities do not reach or exceed the comparison object. Comprehensive negative experiences such as unwillingness, loss, and depression¹⁰. This article defines athlete defeat as the negative emotional experience that athletes experience when they fail due to goal setting and expectations, competitive pressure, injuries and health problems, sense of self-worth, and pressure from online public opinion.

Defeat, as a prerequisite for depression, has obvious precursory properties. Studying whether the defeat scale is suitable for use by elite athletes in Chinese universities can help screen potential depression groups, reduce the number of depressed and suicidal people, and avoid tragedies. Research is helpful to reveal the status and needs of athletes in abnormal mental states, help athletes provide better mental health support, and help athletes solve psychological problems in a timely manner¹¹.

Therefore, an in-depth exploration of athletes’ defeat is of great value that cannot be ignored for the progress of competitive sports in our country. Moreover, there is currently no literature on athletes’ defeat in China. This study was the first to test the reliability and validity of the scale used on a student population of elite athletes from Chinese universities. Through this study, we deeply explored the applicability of the defeat Scale among domestic college athlete students, providing important theoretical support and practical basis for future related research.

Participants and procedure

In scale method research, the sample size is required to be at least 5–10 times the number of scale items¹². The scale used in this study has 16 items in total, and the minimum sample size requirement is 80 people. 226 participants were actually included, meeting the minimum sample size requirement. A convenience sampling method was used to conduct a survey on sports athletes from Renmin University of China and Hebei University of Technology in November 2023, involving national athletes, national first-level athletes, national second-level athletes, and national third-level athletes. A total of 226 questionnaires were issued and returned There were 216 valid questionnaires, with an effective rate of 95.57%. The survey subjects included 153 males and 63 females.

This study was approved by the Academic Committee of Cangzhou Jiaotong University, and all methods were conducted in accordance with psychology-related guidelines and regulations. It was collected through online questionnaires from five universities including Renmin University of China and Hebei University of Technology. In order to ensure the authenticity of the questionnaire answers, before the survey, we contacted the coaches of each university and obtained the approval and approval of the sample collection from the school. Approval, the coach will explain the purpose, process and significance of this study to the respondents in detail, and answer all their questions. After confirming that the informed consent of all subjects has been obtained, the coach will answer the questions in a closed and quiet room. Supervision is complete.

Measures

The defeat Scale was proposed by Gilbert and Allan in 1998 to quantify the feeling of defeat caused by loss of social status, wealth, resources and struggle¹³. The defeat scale has 16 items, which entries 2, 4, and 9 are scored in reverse, while the rest are scored in forward. The 5-point scoring method is adopted: 0–4 points are counted in the order of "never", "rarely", "sometimes", "often" and "always", and the total score is calculated after the reverse scoring entries are converted. The total score range is 0–64, and the higher the score, the stronger the defeat.

Statistical methods

SPSS26.0 and AMOS24.0 software were used to analyze the reliability and validity of the data. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were used to verify the structural validity of the defeat scale, the convergence validity was evaluated by mean variance extraction and combination reliability, and the discriminative validity was evaluated by the square comparison method of AVE and correlation coefficient. Internal consistency reliability (Cronbach'sα coefficient) and 50/50 reliability (Spearman-Brown coefficient) were used to test the reliability of the scale.

Structural validity

Exploratory factor analysis

Firstly, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett test were used to determine the feasibility of factor analysis. The results showed that the KMO sampling suitability parameter was 0.944, and the Bartlett sphericity test P < 0.05, indicating that the data were suitable for factor analysis. Secondly, principal component analysis was used to conduct exploratory factor test, extracting factors with eigenvalues ≥ 1, and extracting two factors, namely two dimensions: feeling of depression and low sense of accomplishment, by the maximum orthogonal rotation of variance. The cumulative variance contribution rate was 63.293%. Figure 1 shows that the curve on the right flattens out after extracting 2 common factors. Table 1 shows the standard factor load of each item of the defeat scale. The factor load value of each item ranges from 0.510–0.90, all of which are greater than 0.45. Commonality values ranged from 0.466 to 0.825, both > 0.25.

Table 1

Factor load values of defeat scale
Item	Factor load	ingredient		communality
Item	Factor load	Decadence	Low sense of achievement	communality
1. I feel that I have not made it in life	0.60	0.632		0.825
2. I feel that I am a successful person	0.88	-	0.864	0.765
3. I feel defeated by life	0.69	0.743		0.696
4. I feel that I am basically a winner	0.71	-	0.814	0.678
5. I feel that I have lost my standing in the world	0.72	0.811	-	0.675
6. I feel that life has treated me like a punchbag	0.71	0.792	-	0.660
7. I feel powerless	0.74	0.757	-	0.630
8. I feel that my confidence has been knocked out of me	0.66	0.669	-	0.620
9. I feel able to deal with whatever life throws at me	0.51	-	0.681	0.570
10. I feel that I have sunk to the bottom of the ladder	0.75	0.738	-	0.570
11. I feel completely knocked out of action	0.88	0.868	-	0.505
12. I feel that I am one of lifes losers	0.92	0.903	-	0.560
13. I feel that I have given up	0.82	0.833	-	0.470
14. I feel down and out	0.80	0.815	-	0.760
15. I feel I have lost important battles in life	0.81	0.813	-	0.690
16. I feel that there is no fight left in me	0.69	0.696	-	0.466
Eigenvalue		8.284	1.843
Variance (%)		51.777	11.517
Cumulative (%)		51.777	63.293

Confirmatory factor analysis

On the basis of exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the obtained two-factor model, and the two-factor model was modified with reference to the modification index. Figure 2 shows that the factor loadings of each item in the two-factor model are greater than 0.50, with the minimum value being 0.51, and the factor loadings are all statistically significant. In this study, several fitting indexes were used to evaluate the fitting of the model: Chi-square freedom ratio (x2/df) = 2.809, < 5; root mean square error of approximation, (RMSEA) = 0.092, close to 0.08; standardized root mean square residual, (SRMR) = 0.054, < 0.080; normed fit index (NFI) = 0.891, incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.927, comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.926, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = 0.910, both > 0.900, the model fits well.

Convergence validity

Table 2 shows that the average variance extracted (AVE) of the convergent validity evaluation indicators of the low sense of achievement dimension and the sense of decadence dimension are 0.579 and 0.505 respectively, and AVE > 0.5, indicating that the convergence effect is good; the combined reliability CR is respectively 0.946 and 0.746.

Table 2

Convergent validity values of the defeat scale
Validity Analysis
	CR	AVE	MSV	MaxR(H)	Decadence	Low sense of achievement
Decadence	0.946	0.579	0.087	0.961	0.761
Low sense of achievement	0.746	0.505	0.087	0.812	0.295	0.71

Discriminative validity

Table 3 shows that the arithmetic square roots of the discriminant validity evaluation index AVE, 0.760 and 0.710, are both higher than the absolute value of the correlation coefficient between the two dimensions, 0.30.

Table 3

Discriminant validity values of defeat scale
Factor construct	AVE	Decadence	Low sense of achievement
Decadence	0.579
Low sense of achievement	0.505	r = 0.30***

Note: The diagonal line represents the square root of AVE; the lower triangle area is the correlation coefficient between constructs; *** indicates that the correlation coefficient is significant at the 0.001 level.

Internal consistency reliability and folded half-reliability

Table 4 shows that internal consistency reliability is also called homogeneity reliability, which refers to the degree of consistency among all questions within the test. The internal consistency test of each item of the defeat scale was conducted. The results showed that the Cronbach's α coefficient of the defeat scale was 0.931, and the Cronbach's α coefficients of the decadence dimension and the low sense of achievement dimension were 0.947 and 0.723 respectively; the spearman- Brown coefficient is 0.888. Therefore, the internal consistency reliability and split-half reliability of this scale are both good.

Table 4

Reliability coefficient of defeat scale
	Total schedule	Decadence	Low sense of achievement
Internal consistency reliability	0.931	0.947	0.723
Spearman-Brown	0.888

Athletes are more likely to experience failure than the general population, which may lead to greater feelings of defeat. This defeat may trigger depression and psychological burden in the individual, thereby increasing the risk of depression.

The defeat Scale has been validated in countries such as Turkey and Germany^14–15. Chinese scholars Tang Hua, Liu Shangbin and others also tested the psychometric properties and applicability of the defeat Scale among Chinese medical students and men who have sex with men. The results show that the scale has good reliability and validity indicators^16–17. This study aims to provide a scale for Chinese elite college athletes to measure their defeat and initially determine their depression status. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the scale, we selected elite athletes from five universities across the country for reliability and validity analysis.

Validity, also known as effectiveness, refers to the extent to which a test or scale can actually measure the psychological traits it is intended to measure¹⁸. This study took a rigorous attitude and used various methods such as discriminant validity, construct validity, and convergent validity to comprehensively evaluate the validity of the defeat scale among elite athletes in China. In terms of construct validity, exploratory factor analysis was used. Through this method, it was found that the cumulative variance contribution rate of the extracted common factors was greater than 40%, and the factor loading of each item was greater than 0.4. This result shows that the actual measurement results of the scale are consistent with the theoretical assumptions, thus proving that the scale has good structural validity. This study used principal component analysis and maximum variance methods to successfully extract two common factors, namely a decadence and a low sense of achievement. The loading value of each item is greater than 0.4, and the cumulative variance contribution rate of these two factors is 63.239%. This further demonstrates that the defeat scale has good construct validity.

This study used internal consistency reliability and split-half reliability methods to evaluate the reliability of the defeat scale used in athletes. After analysis, the Cronbach's α coefficient of this scale is 0.931, of which the Cronbach's α coefficients of the two dimensions are 0.947 and 0.723 respectively. In addition, the result of the Spearman-Brown half coefficient is 0.888, which indicates that the scale has high reliability. These data further confirm the reliability and stability of this scale in a population of athletes.

As the core dimension of the defeat scale, the sense of decadence can well explain why athletes lose motivation and direction when faced with situations such as game failure, injury, retirement, etc. This is a feeling of losing enthusiasm and confidence in life. One's own life is meaningless. After experiencing many failures, this may produce a sense of learned helplessness, which can lead to a negative emotional state, and may even lead to depression and suicidal thoughts. Low sense of achievement, as the second dimension of the defeat scale, can explain the mental state of athletes when they are unable to achieve the goals they set or when they fail to perform at their best in the game from the aspects of self-worth and self-efficacy.. From the above analysis, it can be seen that the theoretical construction of this research scale is very reasonable and comprehensive. It is believed that it can objectively provide a measurable tool for the defeat assessment of elite athletes in Chinese universities, and provide a preliminary judgment basis for subsequent research on psychological problems such as depression in athletes.

This study has some limitations. This study only studied elite athletes at the undergraduate level from five universities in China. It did not include athletes with higher competitive levels, nor did it cover all sports. Due to differences in training years, competition experience and other reasons, Athletes with higher competitive levels will have different feelings and concerns about defeat. Therefore, the results of this study cannot well represent the overall situation of athletes. The representativeness of the sample needs to be further verified. Future research can expand the sample scope. Different types of athletes as well as athletes from different geographical and cultural backgrounds were included to test the applicability and validity of the scale.

In addition, this study mainly focused on the reliability and validity analysis of the scale. Future research can further explore the relationship between the defeat scale and other related scales, such as psychological capital, psychological vulnerability, etc., to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of defeat on athlete psychology. status influence.

This study tested the reliability and validity of the "Defeat Scale" through exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. The results showed that: the scale includes 16 items in two dimensions: decadence and low sense of achievement. The overall scale The fit is good and the internal consistency is relatively stable, making it suitable for testing elite athletes from Chinese universities. Coaches can use it to understand the mental state of athletes to develop more effective training plans. Psychiatrists can use it to evaluate whether athletes need psychological intervention or evaluate the effect of intervention. It provides a powerful tool for athletes' defeat assessment and psychological problem research., providing a more scientific, systematic and comprehensive foundation and reference for improving or preventing depression.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Author Contributions Statement

L. T mainly writes the article, and L.Y.M mainly handles the data.

Data availability statement

Competing interests

M. The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics statement

This study is a psychological survey research, not an experimental psychology research. It is based on psychological experimental ethics, follows the general principles of seeking truth from facts, rigor and prudence, and protects the subject's right to informed consent and the confidentiality of survey data.

Dai Lilei, Du Hui, Li Fen, et al. Research on factors influencing suicidal behavior in adolescent patients with depression [J]. Neurological Diseases and Mental Health, 2022, 22(10): 715-719.
Cao Yanmiao. The influence and mechanism of polygenes of the dopamine system and peer environment on adolescent depression [D]. Shandong Normal University, 2017.
Joiner T. Lonely at the top: The high cost of men's success[M]. St. Martin's Press, 2011.
Li Yuanhao. Depression is gradually becoming a "sad for the sports world" [N]. Workers Daily, 2021-09-08(008).DOI:10.28277/n.cnki.ngrrb.2021.004298
Gouttebarge V, Castaldelli-Maia J M, Gorczynski P, et al. Occurrence of mental health symptoms and disorders in current and former elite athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. British journal of sports medicine, 2019, 53 (11): 700.
Taylor P J, Gooding P, Wood A M, et al. The role of defeat and entrapment in depression, anxiety, and suicide[J]. Psychological bulletin, 2011, 137(3): 391.
Akın A, Uysal R, Çitemel N, et al. The validity and reliability of Turkish version of the defeat scale[J]. Int. Online J. Educ. Sci, 2013, 5: 660-666.
Gilbert P, Allan S. The role of defeat and entrapment (arrested flight) in depression: an exploration of an evolutionary view[J]. Psychological medicine, 1998, 28(3): 585-598.
Wang Hong. Factors affecting suicidal ideation among college students[D]. Shanghai Normal University, 2021.DOI:10.27312/d.cnki.gshsu.2021.000174
Zhu Xiujuan. The effect of pride and Defeat in social comparison on psychology and behavior [D]. Yangzhou University, 2021.
Zhao Jingyi. Research on the chain mediating role of anxiety and depression in the relationship between psychological torque and suicidal ideation among gymnasts [D]. Shandong University, 2021.DOI:10.27272/d.cnki.gshdu.2021.001039
Joo H, Kang H H, Moon H S, et al. Validity and reliability of the Korean version of the Wisconsin Smoking Withdrawal Scale[J]. The Korean Journal of Internal Medicine, 2021, 36(1): 135.
Galynker I, Yaseen Z S, Cohen A, et al. Prediction of suicidal behavior in high risk psychiatric patients using an assessment of acute suicidal state: The suicide crisis inventory[J]. Depression and anxiety, 2017, 34(2): 147-158.
Forkmann T, Stenzel J S, Rath D, et al. " defeated by life"-validation of a German version of the defeat scale (DS-d)[J]. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, Medizinische Psychologie, 2017, 68(7 ): 300-308.
Bobov G, Capik C. The reliability and validity of the religious health fatalism scale in Turkish language[J]. Journal of religion and health, 2020, 59(2): 1080-1095.
LIU S, Hao Y, Chen X U, et al. Validity and reliability of the Chinese version of Defeat Scale in men who have sex with men[J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University (Medical Science), 2021, 41(6 ): 793.
TANG H. Reliability and validity of defeat scale on anxiety and depression in medical students[J]. Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University (Medical Science), 2019: 84-88.
Ma Yuanyuan, Qin Qing, Hou Rui, et al. Development and evaluation of the Chinese version of the Stouthard Dental Fear Scale [J]. Stomatology, 2013, 33(10): 657-660.

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Editorial decision: Revision requested
21 Jun, 2024
Reviews received at journal
19 Jun, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
16 May, 2024
Reviews received at journal
11 Mar, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
29 Feb, 2024
Reviewers invited by journal
20 Feb, 2024
Editor assigned by journal
13 Feb, 2024
Editor invited by journal
28 Dec, 2023
Submission checks completed at journal
28 Dec, 2023
First submitted to journal
22 Dec, 2023

You are reading this latest preprint version

Evaluation and test of the reliability and validity of the Chinese defeat scale in the elite athletes of Chinese universities

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Purpose

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Figures

Introduction

Method

Participants and procedure

Measures

Statistical methods

Results

Structural validity

Exploratory factor analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis

Convergence validity

Discriminative validity

Discussion

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1