Discoid technology in between: The Middle Palaeolithic site of Istraishta in the Quaternary context of the Korça Basin, Albania

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3799762/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Discoid technology in between: The Middle Palaeolithic site of Istraishta in the Quaternary context of the Korça Basin, Albania

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3799762/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Neanderthal groups developed different models of mobility and exploitation of resources across their territory: these differences can be linked to various knapping methods and are probably related to adaptative strategies and responses at many ecological and cultural levels. Neanderthals associated with Discoid knapping are known to depend on a context-specific, not planned exploitation of lithic raw materials for daily food procurement and be more mobile than others using different technologies. However, we have no defined data for most of the geographical contexts where this technocomplex was found. This study presents the open-air site of Istraishta, where the Mousterian is characterized by the Discoid technology applied to the reduction of pebbles, thin plates and flakes. The multidisciplinary investigations include the study of the lithic surface collection, of the quality and variety of the lithic raw materials exploited in the site as well as the analysis of the soil which is preserved in localized patches. These new data on the behavioral variability of Neanderthals in the southern Balkans are here contextualized at a macro-regional level, with analogies with many sites of the Adriatic basin mainly framed chronologically between MIS 5 and MIS 3.

Lithic industry

Palaeopedology

Soil-micromorphology

Open-air site

Mousterian

Southern Balkans

1.1. The Middle Palaeolithic settlements of Western Balkans: a biased scenario?

Southern Europe was extensively inhabited by Neanderthals during the late Middle Pleistocene and part of the Late Pleistocene. However, although the currently available ensemble of evidence shows variability in settlement patterns and mobility strategies, the reconstruction of Neanderthals’ cultures and adaptative behaviors is biased. In the geographic and environmental domains that feature the three peninsulas of this fringe of Europe, Iberian, Italian, and Balkan (Romagnoli et al., 2022), the Balkan Peninsula and particularly its south-westernmost part records low numbers of Mousterian sites, either single or multi layered. Southernmost sites are situated at the edges of the Great Adriatic Po Region (Peresani et al., 2021) and of the Ionian region, and in the mountain ranges of Dinarids, Epirus, down to the southernmost Greek peninsula (Galanidou & Papoulia, 2023; Karavanić & Banda, 2023). Caves are also present in the mountainous area in the southern periphery of the Pannonian basin (Mihalović, 2020), while open-air sites are grouped in the main river basins of the Sava, Drina and Morava. Currently, from North to South, the most investigated sites are Vindija Cave, Mujina Pecina, Pešturina, Kozarnika, Crvena Stijena, and Bioče, showing repeated occupations where lithic production was integrated with the acquisition and consumption of food resources. Some of them attract debate on the latest presence of Neanderthals in Europe and the Mediterranean basin, through continuously updating of the chronological, archaeological and palaeoanthropological records (Higham et al., 2014; Mihailović, 2020; Thibaut et al., 2017). Under this point of view, the belt bounding to the East of the Adriatic and Ionian seas, with its particular geographic setting and climatic and ecological variability related to its ensemble of coastal plains, hilly landscapes, and full mountain ranges peaking at 2,600-2,700 m asl, it is worthy to be considered having witnessed large movements of populations since the Middle Pleistocene. Its physical setting, dissected by the major SE-NW oriented fluvial valleys which connect the southernmost part of the Balkans with the Adriatic region could have supported refugia for temperate species and favored the development of Pleistocene zoogeographic diversity since the earliest times (Palombo & Mussi, 2006). In this area however, given the paucity of Middle Palaeolithic sites, our current knowledge on Neanderthal occupations, locations, territories and adaptations to the environmental and ecological diversity is poor. It is expected that Neanderthals’ adaptation through the use of different mobility strategies and technological traditions to cope with this geographic diversity, raised a cultural mosaic featured between expedient and curated technologies, continuity and rupture of different productions and tool manufacture, modes and rhythms in the occupation of sites and exploitation of environmental resources. However, this scenario is still far from being composed.

Given the current state, the study illustrated in the present paper aims to contribute towards reconstructing the use of a mountain zone during the Middle Palaeolithic through the presentation of the data achieved from a multidisciplinary study (palaeopedology, petroarchaeometry and Discoid lithic technology) conducted on an open-air site located in the Korça basin, near the town of Korça, in Southeast Albania.

1.2. Discoid knapping on the edge

The contribution of lithic technology in the analysis of knapped stone assemblages addressed to reconstruct Neanderthal cultural and economic patterns and their developments, is widely affirmed in Western Eurasia. Aside the extremely vast use of Levallois method, Neanderthals expressed a marked variability in the application of different technologies among which the Discoid technology represents an iconic case of comparation. Initially defined in the 90s in its main volumetric criteria (Boëda, 1993) with successive insights aimed at exploring its variability of application (see Peresani, ed. 2003), this procedure of core shaping, exploitation and maintenance is traditionally noted to be less predetermined but more prolific and versatile/flexible than the Levallois. Several reasons support this view, the foremost being the recurrent nature of its reductive and productive concept, by concatenating the exploitation of the core-faces and facilitating the detachment of both predetermining and predetermined pieces without embedded phases of shaping. This great versatility allows the maker to obtain a full series of functional products from a qualitatively larger range of raw materials than the Levallois and other technologies, so to overcome restrictions by ecological constraints and possible hampers in the settlement of landscapes devoid of high-quality raw materials (Turq et al., 2017). Being applicable to a wide spectrum of different blanks, the Discoid concept of reduction can also focus on the exploitation of flakes, whose maintenance stages and obtainable products are fully comparable to the Discoid reduction sequences on nodules or pebbles (Bourguignon & Turq, 2003).

At several European sites, the Discoid method was used with variable incidence in the productive systems, from ephemeral to prevailing up to becoming exclusive in certain contexts and temporal frames. Apparently, despite this reduction system was not only a “supporting” procedure for the maximization of production, it does not seem to be indicative of in-depth planning, but of a place-provisioning strategy aimed at short-term exploitation. In these cases, as already investigated by Delagnes and Rendu (2011), the bearers of this technology would be characterized by increased seasonal mobility in which lithic production, being internally diverse and well ramified, yields a high potential for adaptation to immediate needs. Discoid’s advantage seems to reside in the possibility of maintaining a high potential for adaptation and renewal through the adoption of strategies that are less subjected to environmental constraints. This behavior of technological flexibility can be interpreted as a rational and planned response consistent with recent evidence of logistical planning of the economical organization in semi-local or exotic territory, according to the quality and distance of available raw materials sources and the related systematic segmentation of the operative chain (Delpiano et al., 2018).

Discoid technology also features the assemblage of the Istraishta open-air site in the South of Albania in an unexplored zone for the Palaeolithic, which is the focus of the study presented here. After the illustration of the geomorphological and palaeopedological context, the following contribution aims to generate new evidence for future cultural-behavioral comparisons between Neanderthals managing different production systems in this part of south-western Balkans.

2.1. Summary of previous studies on Quaternary and Prehistory in this district with respect to location and geomorphological context of Istraishta.

The hill of Istraishta (1010 m. a.s.l.) is situated at the eastern edge of an intermontane plain in the south-western area of the Korça basin (Fig. 1). The plain slopes gently northwards varying in elevation from about 890 m a.s.l. in the southern part, to about 820 m a.s.l. in the northern part and borders in all directions with mountains with elevations ranging from about 1500 to 2000 m asl. The mountains bordering the Korça plain, and particularly in the southern part, are deeply incised by numerous small but high-energy streams and torrents that fill the Korça depression with their sediments. The Dunaveci River drains the southern part of the plain and joins the Devolli River in the northern part.

Tectonically, the Korça basin is a graben which started to form in Late Miocene (Xhomo et al., 2002; Lindhorst et al., 2015). The Korça basin has an asymmetric shape with a much higher scarp to the east, hence the sudden emergence of limestone bedrock, while the molasse widely surround the basin to the west (Fouache et al., 2010). Tectonic faulting is particularly developed to the east where the plain borders with Mount Morava (Mali Morava) made up of ultrabasic rocks and in the north along the periphery of Mali i Thatë Mountain made up mainly of Triassic limestone. Throughout the Pliocene, a further extensional phase of the regional system of grabens conjugated the Ohrid and Korça grabens giving rise to the same lake-river system. Pliocene to present day tectonics (subsidence) gradually isolated the Korça graben within its present geological borders, allowing the deposition of interposed Pliocene formations north of the basin (Tagari et al., 1993; Lindhorst et al., 2015).

Subsidence led to the formation of graben-shaped Quaternary lakes and plains. During this period the graben lakes of Korça, Elbasani, Zadrima, Tirana, Myzeqe and others were formed. Holocene fluvial deposits overlie most of the central part of the Korça lowland. They mostly consist of alternating and discontinuous layers of variably selected gravel, with sand and ground silt and clayey silt. The maximum thickness of the Quaternary deposits in the south-central part of the plain (in the Turan-Bulgarec area) is about 300 m. Mixed alluvial and alluvial fan deposits are widely exposed in the periphery of the Korça plain (Eftimi & Sara, 2022). These deposits mainly consist of the intercalation of gravels, clays and silts in very different sequences, while the southern part of the basin it is characterized by Quaternary alluvial terraces. The eastern slope of the basin is coated by several non-active coalescent Holocene alluvial cones and glacis.

FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE

The hill of Istraishta rises isolated (Fig. 2a) and is limited to the north and south by two deep river erosions: to the north by the valley of the Kamenica stream and to the south by another tributary of the Dunaveci River. The relief is formed by the anticline of the nappe emplacement of Upper Triassic-Lower Jurassic limestones and the Molasse of Albanian Thessalian basin (Middle Oligocene). The sequences are dislocated by many normal faults along N-S to NNE-SSW direction. The top of the hill is a small morpho-structural relief formed by the outcrop of a bank of Oligocene bioclastic calcarenites with macroforaminifera, mollusks and fragments of benthic colonial organisms, about two meters thick, which rests on a sequence of alternated gravel-sandy-siltstone deposits with siliceous conglomerate lenses, especially in the lower part, and marls with neritic fossils. The eastern slope of the hill is affected by gullies which erode the marly-arenaceous sequence of the molasse. The hill has recently been affected by military posts and the installation of repeaters and the limestone bank was used as a domestic quarry.

2.2. Discovery and research history at the site

The Istraishta site was discovered in 2001 during the excavations of the nearby Kamanica tumulus by the Albanian prehistorians Ilir Gjipali and Skënder Aliu, who were participating in the fieldwork and took the opportunity to visit the site. Gjipali was able to affirm the early prehistoric nature of the site, even though the presence of lithic artifacts was first noted in 1968 by Aliu, who did not publish or pursue further work at the location. From 2001 onwards the site was surface collected during a number of visits and was briefly listed in publications by Gjipali as an early prehistoric, Middle Palaeolithic, and as Middle and Upper Palaeolithic site (Gjipali, 2006; 2011; 2012; 2014; Aliu, 2020). From 2011 Istraishta was visited in collaboration between Ruka and Gjipali as part of the formers PhD work, which led to an overview publication on the Korça basin early prehistory that also included Istraishta (Ruka, 2018). Starting from 2012 the site was visited on several occasions (Peresani et al., 2016) and studied in collaboration with the Italian team included in this publication. Initially the site was published under the nearby village name Kamenica, but since that name had been also provided for the excavated tumulus, it was decided to be renamed after the hill into which is set.

The main data during archaeological surveys aimed to detect the spatial distribution of the artifacts, their relations with the karst surface and possibly with the surface deposits and soils preserved within karst fissures. GPS recording, surface collection, examination of natural and artificial exposures on soils surfaces, gullies and fluvial erosional banks, were carried out (Fig. 2b). We took into consideration potential sources of information from geomorphology, nature of soils and sediments, field and micromorphological features of palaeosoils with the aim to infer the major geomorphic and pedological events responsible of the present-day context. The macroscopic nature of the lithic resources in the surroundings was also considered for comparation with the artifacts aimed to confirm their local exploitation. Finally, the definition of the cultural technocomplex was based on the detection of the most typologically diagnostic artifacts also considered by a technological point of view.

FIGURE 2 ABOUT HERE

3.1. Field description

Soil horizons have been described according to the FAO guidelines (2006) (Table 1). The symbology for the soil classification and the definition of the horizons follows the criteria of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010). Soil classification follows the "World reference base for soil Resources" (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2015). Colors have been determined in the wet state and codified with the Munsell® Soil Colour Charts (2000).

Table 1 ABOUT HERE

3.2. Soil micromophology

3.2.1. Methodology

Four thin sections have been analysed. Sediment blocks were extracted from horizons AB, Bw, 2Bt1b and 2Bt1b of Profile IST_1 in a karst fissure in the course of surveys (Fig. 2b). Thin sections were prepared by the "Laboratorio Servizi per la Geologia" (Piombino, Livorno) according to the method proposed by Murphy (1986). Their analysis has been carried out with a Prior Scientific MP3500A microscope with polarised light at 20, 40, 100, and 400 magnifications. The description follows the criteria adopted by Bullock et al. (1985), Courty et al. (1989), Stoops (2021) while for the interpretation the references are Stoops et al. (2018), Nicosia and Stoops (2017).

3.2.2. Results (table 2)

The thin section shows that the transitional horizon AB (thin section MM2) is characterized by a complex microstructure with highly separated primary granular microstructure, weakly separated secondary subangular blocky microstructure, and intrapedal channel microstructure. In MM2 the porosity increases compared with the lower portion of the soil (about 10%) and it presents channels likely originated by tree roots (diameter > 2,5 mm) or biogalleries (diameter < 5 mm). This latter is characterized by discontinuous and loose microgranular infillings (pedotubules, Brewer 1964) caused by soil mesofauna activity. The relative frequency distribution between coarse (> 20 µm) and thin fraction is an open porphyric one. The size of the coarse fraction (15%) ranges between medium silt and thin sand. Polycrystalline quartz typical of the granoblastic texture of metamorphic rocks is the main component. Rare subangular particles of yellowish volcanic glass and microcrystalline chert are observed. The thin fraction is composed of a reddish-brown ground mass consisting of clay and mineral grains of the size of silt, creating a cristallitic b-fabric. Amongst the pedofeatures loose discontinuous and loose continuous microgranular infillings are identified. They are often associated to coalesced or isolated ellipsoidal excrements produced by the mesofauna. The voids are characterized by dense incomplete infillings of impure clay. Furthermore, both typic anorthic impregnate iron (hydr)oxide nodules and nodules with angular quartz grains (nucleic) inherited by ancient soils were observed. It must be mentioned the presence of fresh roots in the channels with Ca-ossalato (whewellite) crystals.

Considering the micromorphological aspect, the horizon Bw (thin section MM1) is quite similar to the abovementioned AB. The microstructure is basically identical, so as the mineral features of the ground mass although in Bw the coarse part considerably decreases. Amongst the heavy minerals, rare amphiboles were recognized. Compared to the thin section MM2, the organic part within the thin fraction decreases. The pedofeatures are, instead, alike. The presence of organic amorphus material, monomorphic, of planar shape with clear and sharp edges similar to silt in size, is hinting to the presence of micro charcoal although in a really low percentage (< 1%). Fresh roots were identified in the Ca-ossalato (whewellite) crystals channels (Fig. 3).

The horizon 2Bt1b (thin section MM3) is different from the others that we have just described. Its ground mass is characterized by subangular and polyhedric peds divided by planar voids. The coarse fraction consists of some quartz grains (10%), mica, rare chert fragments and volcanic glass. The ground mass is composed of an opaque, brown-reddish, b-fabric speckled clay. The pedofeatures show mesofauna activity (passage features, loose discontinuos and loose continuos microgranular infillings and coalescent ellipsoids excrements). As in the horizons above, dense incomplete infillings of impure clay and typic and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nodules of the same size of thin sand are common (Fig. 3). In this horizon it increases the presence of amorphous organic material (5%) of variable size – from silt to medium sand – with a really low presence of micro charcoal (< 1%).

The horizon 2Bt2b (thin section MM4) shows the same micropedological features of MM3, except for the rubefaction of the clayish ground mass.

FIGURE 3 AND TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE

3.3.3. Interpretation

The profile 1 of the site of Istraishta (IST_1) consists of two distinct pedological units that form a complex palaeosoil. Its deep sequence resembles the features of polycyclic soils (Duchaufour, 1983). The lower unit is formed by the horizons 2Bt1b and 2Bt2b (thin sections MM3 and MM4 respectively), while the upper unit is formed by the horizons AB and Bw (thin sections MM1 and MM2 respectively). These two are both characterized by a total decarbonisation. The lower unit presents the “Terra Rossa” features, and it can be identified as fersiallitic soil (Duchaufour, 1983) o Luvisol (WRB, 2015). These soils cover the hard limestone and dolomitic rocks in karstic regions as a discontinuous layer of variable thickness – from few centimetres to several meters deep (Durn et al., 1999; Durn, 2003; Merino et al., 2006; Torrent, 2005). The colors – from 5YR to 2.5YR (Munsell® Soil Colour Charts) – are a diagnostic feature of “Mediterranean Terre Rosse” and they reflect the intensity of the process of rubefaction, such as the main formation of hematite instead of goethite (Schwertmann and Taylor, 1989). The parent material has a polygenetic origin, and it is the result of the karstic dissolution of the limestone substrate and the following pedogenetic evolution of the residual clay and allochthonous aeolian components (quarts, mica, volcanic glass, amphiboles). For what concerns the micromorphology, the deep horizon 2Bt2b is characterized by a strong accumulation of sequioxides. In addition to the rubefaction and the clay ground mass, it is clear the absence of textural pedological features on the surface of the voids. This is consistent with the development of a fersiallitic soil, and it can be interpreted as the end of the incorporation of these features in the ground mass due to process of intense bioturbation by the mesofauna.

The upper unit shows similar micropedological features but different as well in horizons Bw1 and AB (thin sections MM1 and MM2 respectively). The AB transitional can be inferred by the increase of the organic fraction in the groundmass and the significant increase of biological activity. First of all, the quartz coarse fraction and a fine clayish texture that give to the groundmass a related porfiric peripheric distribution, can be interpreted as clear evidence of an advanced stage of weathering of the soil. The coarse fraction consisting of less weatherable and resistant minerals such as quartz is typical of highly weathered horizons like in Oxisols (IUSS Working Group WRB 2015) or laterites. Amongst the coarse components we detected subangular particles of yellowish volcanic glass – i.e. palagonite – although with low percentages. The fine clayish and reddish material with heterogeneous b-fabric is another feature of sub-superficial oxic horizons with high degree of evolution. This latter develops on ancient and steady surfaces where a rejuvenation of the soil does not occur. This is the case of long-term pedogenesis.

The polyhedric and angular microstructure associated with a dense groundmass with open porphyric c/f distribution can be found in soils subjected by cryoturbation. In addition, the overlapping of a microstructure with channels with loose discontinuous microgranular infillings, often associated to coalescent ellipsoidal fecal pellets, is clear evidence of mesophauna biological activity and roots in the sub-superficial horizon. These pedofeatures caused by mesophauna activity associated to fresh roots in channels characterized by whewellite crystals bear witness of a recent use of the soil, notably a shift to pastures from wooden area. This change can be observed in the gradual superimposition of a granular intrapedal and channel microstructure to the originary angular poliedric microaggregation – probably also prismatic, although it is difficult to infer due to the scale of the thin section. The dense and incomplete impure clay infillings as well can be interpreted as illuvium phenomena and/or degradation of the microstructure as consequence of the dismantling of the vegetational cover. This phenomenon also produced significant increase of porosity in the sub-superficial portion of the rare (< 1%) particles of microcarbon in the form of amorphous and monomorphic organic material with flat shape and clear surfaces have also been observed.

4.1 Materials and methods

The lithic assemblage of Istraishta consists of 1467 finds (Table 4). From this assemblage, less than 20 artifacts are undeterminable due to intense fragmentation and physical and chromatic alterations caused by thermal stress, weathering, pedological processes and other factors; therefore, these were excluded from further discussion. Another category, which includes less than 40 artifacts securely attributable to Holocene, possibly belonging to Mesolithic, Neolithic or later periods based on technological and typological grounds were also excluded from the analysis as they are outside the scopes of the present work. The remaining major component bears diagnostic techno-typological features consistent with a Middle Palaeolithic assemblage and is illustrated in the following paragraph.

The conceptual and analytical approach to technological analysis of the Istraishta lithic assemblage follows Inizan et al., (1995), Boëda (1993), Peresani (1998), Bourguignon and Turq (2003), and papers in Peresani (2003) for the Discoid reduction method. The technological analysis of the collection is also corroborated by well-established protocols issued from refinements of the basic definition provided by E. Boëda (Mourre, 2003). Aside the counting of all items > 1cm long, we carried out technological analysis on all the identifiable artefacts and used technological and morphological criteria for understanding the role and the position of each flake along the reduction sequence. We broadly reconstructed the reduction sequence on the base of morpho-technical, diacritic, and morphometric analyses on the cores, complete blanks, and certain by-products deemed to have played a significant role during the production stage. Given our experience in Discoid lithic technology performed using different raw materials (chert, flint, jasper, quartzite, etc.), the reduction chains from Istraishta were not replicated with a stepwise experimental testing method. Certain types of exploitation, such as the exploitation of the ventral face cores of large cortical flakes, have been termed as 'Kombewa-type', with reference to the adaptation of the Kombewa technology to the Levallois volumetric concept (Dauvois, 1981), also adaptable to Discoid concept (Bourguignon & Turq, 2003). Key typological features of the retouched blanks are also given in the dedicated paragraph below. Given the chemical-physical (patina) and mechanical surface alteration of the artifacts due to long-term exposition, we did not consider worthy to carry out functional analyses. Finally, we did not use 3D models to achieve morpho-metrical data on sizes, angles, convexities, and exploited volumes of the cores, conversely to what we did in other case-studies of Discoid method (Delpiano et al., 2019a).

4.2 Lithic raw material sources in the Korça basin

In the Central-Eastern Hellenides/Albanides, knappable lithic resources are quite heterogeneous, reflecting the high diversification of the outcropping geological macro-units. Here are western Adria plate (Pelagonian zone) Mesozoic limestones, Neothetys Jurassic Ophiolites, metamorphic basement slabs and volcano-sedimentary series. The complex regional puzzle is due to the closure of the western sector of the Neothetys ocean (Vardar) whose remnants are preserved as ophiolite nappes over the eastern edge of the Adria continental plate as well as Paleozoic basement slabs (Schmidt et al., 2008; Bortolotti et al., 2013; Sherreiks & BouDagher-Fadel, 2021) (Fig. 4).

FIGURE 4 ABOUT HERE

The basinal and slope sedimentary rocks contain chert nodules and layers with specific features like size, color, texture, structure, paleontological content, silicification degree and integrity. Different kinds of cherts are included in the Adria Triassic-Jurassic limestones; radiolarites in the ophiolite sedimentary covers; Neogene cherts in the Flysch and Molasse. Other raw materials include: quartzite in the metamorphic basement; ignimbrite in the volcano-sedimentary units; silcrete in the silified encrusted soils. The post collisional evolution of the area is mainly related to the birth and evolution of the Albanian-Thessalian for deep basin, filled by flysch (since upper Cretaceous) and molasse (since Eocene) siliciclastic and shallow marine sediments (bioclastic calcarenites) locally silified. The Korça basin, which is part of the aforementioned fore deep, rest over the Mirdita (ophiolites), Korabi (Paleozoic) and Krasta-Cukali (Mesozoic platform-basin limestones). Conglomerate horizons are common especially in the Eocene-Miocene Molasse while the more ancient Flysch are constituted mainly by siltstones and sandstones. The pebbles are represented mainly by ophiolite-derived roks and among these also silcrete (Skarpelis, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4284401) but even by other lithologies eroded from the surrounding weathered outcropping rocks. In Late Miocene the compressive tectonic style changed to extensional (Lindhorst et al., 2015) with the opening of several N-S oriented grabens (rifting) progressively filled by siliciclastic and lacustrine deposits. Extensional tectonics in the region is still active. Cherts and other raw materials have been spread also in the Quaternary to present day terraces and torrent gravels. Given that, systematic petroarchaeological studies of lithic collections or field surveys of outcropping knappable rocks have never been conducted in this particular region. One of the most inclusive descriptions of the regional geological units is the National geological map of Albania and related illustrative notes (Xomo et al., 2002).

From this preliminary analysis we assess that most of the raw materials exploited in the site were collected as pebbles from the Molasse conglomerates outcropping in the hills surrounding the south-east and north-west Korça plain (Fouache et al., 2010): the site itself lays over a Molasse hill (Fig. 1). The pebbles could have been collected both nearby the outcrops and from alluvial deposits. In most of the cases they are represented by rounded pebbles with a certain alteration degree highlighted by yellow to dark patinas due to pedogenetic-lateritic processes. A lower number of raw materials (among these certain blocks of radiolarites and cherts) show fresh and un-altered surfaces and were probably collected nearby the outcrops. Ophiolite units and covers (radiolarites) delimit the south-western margin of the Korça plain, close to the site.

The raw materials lithotypes belong to these groups (Table 4, Fig. 5):

1. Ra. Radiolarite groups

Ra1. Grey-green radiolarites with reddish brown alteration surfaces, low silified, with small and badly preserved white radiolarians and scattered Sulphide deposits, locally oxidized. Show evidence of hydrotermal metamorphism, referable to the Ophiolite covers (Vardar). Catched as pebbles.

Ra2. Red microlaminated radiolarites with abundant radiolarians filled both with Calcedony (dark looking) and pelagic mud (brown to pink). Show evidence of hydrotermal metamorphism, referable to the Ophiolite covers (Vardar). Catched as pebbles.

Ra3. Low silified radiolarian shales with Manganese mineralizations; radiolarians badly preserved or not visible; diaclases filled with reddish-orange pelagic mud. Show evidence of hydrotermal metamorphism, referable to the Ophiolite covers (Vardar). Catched as pebbles.

Ra4. Bi-colored green and red radiolarites with well-preserved heterometric radiolarians filled by Calcedony, Microquartz or Calcite; non tectonized; referable to partially calcareous radiolarites deposited over the CCD (calcite compensation depth) maybe in the upper part of the Ophiolite covers (Vardar) or in the Adria continental margins. Catched as detritus near the outcrops.

2. Si. Silcrete groups

Si1. Vivid red calcedony with massive and waxy translucency, with vacuolar porosities filled by microcrystalline Quartz and locally with white Quartz flames; genesis linked to laterite processes on Ophiolite rocks during the Cretaceous; not tectonized. Catched as pebbles.

Si2. Yellow fine texture silified laterite with a brecciated texture with vacuolar porosities mineralized by white zoned Calcedony; genesis linked to laterite processes on Ophiolite rocks during the Cretaceous; not tectonized. Catched as pebbles.

Si3. Laterite with fine texture silified matrix and Chromite mineralizations and Quartz veins; genesis linked to laterite processes on Ophiolite rocks during the Cretaceous; not tectonized. Catched as pebbles.

Si4. Very fine crystalline grey Calcedony with white patina and waxy translucency; contains lithoclasts and big green and dark minerals with altered borders (reddish); has brecciated texture with Calcedony and Microquartz mineralizations in the porosities; genesis linked to laterite processes on Ophiolite rocks during the Cretaceous; not tectonized. Catched form paleosoils or alteration horizons (laterite).

3. Qu. Quartzite group

Qu1. Fine crystalline streaked quartzite with numerous pressure-oriented diaclases, locally filled by reddish clay; genesis from metamorphic processes on the crystalline basement (Paleozoic). Catched as pebbles.

4. Vo. Volcanite group

Vo1. Light grey Trachyte with alkaline-Feldpars phenocrystals.

5. Ch. Chert groups

Ch1. Silified light grey bio-calcarenite with sponge spicules, peloids, colonial-organism bioclasts and benthic forams and little laminated structure; environmental deposition: Cretaceous-Oligocene Korça foredeep. Catched as evoluted pebbles, with dark alteration surfaces.

Ch2. Silified reddish grey bio-calcarenite to mudstone with small spicules, peloids and bioclasts dispersed in a fine brown-pink matrix; microfossils are often graded and re-sedimented; little tectonized; environmental deposition: Cretaceous-Oligocene Korça foredeep. Catched as evoluted pebbles, with dark alteration surfaces.

Ch3. Silified colonial organism (probably a sponge with clear visible porosities and cells); classified as framestone (Dunham 1962); little tectonized; environmental deposition: external platform/reef; attribution: Adria (Pelagonian) Mesozoic platform-basins system. Catched as evoluted pebble.

Ch4. Dark low silified and massive bituminous chert, with calcite/dolomite dispersed rhombic crystals and thick lamination; environmental deposition: intra-platform basins; attribution: Triassic-lower Jurassic. Catched as evoluted and altered pebbles.

Ch5. Silified light yellow to beige fine texture bio-calcarenite, mat, with abundant white bioclastic detritus (benthic foraminifers and crinoids, spicules, bioclasts); little tectonized; environmental deposition: continental margin (slope); attribution: Adria (Pelagonian) Mesozoic platform-basins system.

Ch6. Very fine texture light grey chert with ivory-like mudstone cortex; contains numerous white small radiolarians and few small spicules; this pelagic facies is very similar to the Maiolica limestone; environmental deposition: basinal; attribution: Adria (Pelagonian) Mesozoic platform-basins system. Catched from paleosoils.

Table 3 AND FIGURE 5 ABOUT HERE

4.3 Discoid production and tool shaping

4.3.1. Discoid production

The lithic assemblage records the common variability associated with the Discoid core volumetric patterns, leading to an ensemble of technical options adopted during the production sequence, with the development of two operational chains (Table 4). This design is consistent with what was already been established in previous analyses conducted on other assemblages in Europe (see in Peresani 2003; Delpiano et al., 2018; Delpiano & Peresani, 2017; Arrighi et al., 2009).

Table 4 ABOUT HERE

The first reduction sequence involved the exploitation of medium-sized blocks and pebbles, with primary products obtained already at the earliest stage during the decortication and the creation of the core edge delimiting the two core faces (Fig. 6). The full production stage up to the deactivation is arranged around this pivotal crest. In substantial accordance with the Discoid criteria of predetermination, this exploitation also provoked some particular modifications to the morphological core outline, as a consequence of varied technical options practiced during manufacture. In such a way, the convex flaking surface acquired a centripetal pattern only in the main phase of production; however, technology revealed quantitative and qualitative variability in the flaking procedure. Various usable blanks were obtained at the exploitation onset: among these, ten lightly lengthened and partially cortical flakes, whose cortex is sometimes lateral and opposite to a cutting edge, and with one or two unidirectional detachments. When the exploitation develops on the lateral edge and before the typical production alternated on the two main surfaces, flakes with natural back can be produced; these are largely present in the Istraishta assemblage (n = 79). As decortication proceeded the flake-size decreased: the simple schemes with one-two parallel or convergent removals were progressively replaced by centripetal patterns, in accordance with a reduction process applied throughout the same sequence. The main productive phase leads to obtain different types of blanks according to the organization of core-reduction. Detachments generally possess both predetermined and predeterminant function, in order to guarantee the technical criteria of the core organization including surface convexities and angles. The two flaking axes, centripetal or chordal in respect to the core outline, allowed the surface convexity to be shaped in different ways. From the beginning of this stage, 25 débordant flakes and 24 centripetal flakes bearing cortical surfaces further attest that full production was reached before the complete shaping and decortication of the core. In fact, the primary production focuses on the expected range of typical Discoid blanks such as centripetal flakes, core-edge removal flakes (éclats débordants), and pseudo-Levallois points (Fig. 7), interspersed by several readjustments and core preparations. Also, the number of by-products with flaking errors is high indeed (almost one hundred). Some cores’ readjustments include the partial removal of the core-edge and the reorientation of the exploitation on a freshly created surface. This technical behavior, well attested on discoid cores, is here indicated by 14 transversal or longitudinal crested flakes and a couple of discoid cores organized on three main surfaces (Fig. 8).

FIGURES 6, 7, 8 ABOUT HERE

The second operational chain develops on the exploitation of flakes as cores, following a Kombewa-type reduction that partially aligns to the Discoid volumetric concept and pattern (Fig. 9). In such a case, the core edge is represented by the plane of intersection between the two faces of the flake. Large cortical flakes are the preferred blank to be reduced, while sometimes taking advantage of the bulb as the volume of major convexity. The exploitation is simpler and less productive, mostly unifacial and located on the ventral surface, even if small detachments on the upper surface are often found in correlation with a partially worked crest.

FIGURE 9 ABOUT HERE

Aside the exploitation of different types of cherts, the whole assemblage perfectly summarizes the wide range of Discoid techno-economic strategies recognized elsewhere. The large amount of intact cortical products suggests that the initialization of the cores occurred on-site, and that the branching of the Discoid production into the two operational sequences was arranged in broadly comparable proportions, as testified by the number of cores-on-flake (n = 46) and the Kombewa-type flakes (n = 42). Some discoid cores on thin slabs (n = 11) or on flakes (n = 36) testify to a very low degree of exploitation, represented by few bifacial detachments shaping a sinuous lateral edge and suggesting the intentional searching of very small discoid blanks. This is confirmed by the small size reached by the pseudo-Levallois points and the core-edge removal flakes, in some cases below 2 cm.

4.3.2. Tool shaping

The few retouched tools (n = 21) indicate that tool-shaping was performed at the site only to a very small extent. This data confirms that the Istraishta assemblage mainly records the knapping stages pertaining to core-shaping and the carrying of the two juxtaposed discoid operational sequences, with the production of first-choice artefacts and the discard of exhausted cores (Fig. 8). It is reasonable to think that some of the Middle Palaeolithic retouched tools could be introduced into the site already shaped, since there is a great diversity of raw materials. However, tool retouching has been recognized within the site through the identification of two retouch flakes attesting the shaping of thick scrapers.

Scrapers represent the main tool-type (n = 15) (Fig. 10). Most of the tools are fragmented, but it is possible to recognize some simple scrapers manufactured on chert, mainly characterized by straight longitudinal profile. It is worth mentioning two proximal fragments of double scrapers in red and green radiolarite, the first with a double simple and straight retouch, and the second with a left direct scalar retouch and a right inverse flat retouch. A fragmented convergent scraper is also made on radiolarite, while the largest retouched tool is a simple denticulated scraper made on a 7.5 cm flake with natural back. Two notches, one denticulated tool and three flakes with marginal retouch complete the retouched assemblage, while other tools probably belong to the most recent (post-Pleistocene) phase of human frequentation.

FIGURE 10 ABOUT HERE

4.4. Levallois flakes and cores

The assemblage also includes Levallois blanks and cores, together with flakes detached for re-configurating and maintaining the cores during reduction (Fig. 11). The raw materials used to produce Levallois implements are similar to the ones employed for Discoid lithic artefacts, with fine-grained greyish chert being the most exploited and the other types in much shorter supply. Although slight differences have been observed in the use of blanks and in the properties of the raw material, the lithic production and economy did not vary between the different lithological groups. Levallois technology is represented by a small number of artefacts following its strict concept, including seven typical cores and 14 flakes with prepared butt. Some other cores and flakes record knapping on a single surface and a similar volumetric concept on two hierarchized surfaces, however without the careful preparation of the striking platform.

FIGURE 11 ABOUT HERE

5.1. Discoid assemblages in the Southern European scenario

The presence of industries manufactured by means of the Discoid technology is largely known in late Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene sites in western, central and southern Europe to offer emblematic examples such as Scladina Cave (Belgium, MIS 5, Moncel et al., 1998), Kulna Cave (Czechia, MIS 3, Boëda, 1995), Coudoulous I and La Borde (France, MIS 6, Jaubert and Farizy, 1995; Jaubert and Mourre, 1996), Les Fieux, Champ Grand, La Baume Neron and Combe Grenal (France, MIS4, Faivre et al., 2014; Slimak, 1999), Mauran, Saint-Césaire (France, MIS 3, Thiébaut, 2013; Thiébaut et al., 2009), Abric Romani (Spain, MIS3, Vaquero et al., 2001). In many of these sites, both Discoid and Levallois reduction methods are present in the same occupation levels, although the two technologies are differently applied to rocks suitable to be knapped. The Levallois is generally associated with higher quality and occasionally allochtonous raw materials, whereas the Discoid is associated with strictly local materials, regardless of quality. In these cases, the Discoid seems to represent a technology through which the exploitation of local resources is maximized, whereas final reductions to meet different objectives are only secondary. This type of behavior is also attested in the Iberian Peninsula (Carrión et al., 2008), where Discoid and Quina were both manufactured from quartzite and flint, while the Levallois was often made only of raw materials of the highest quality. In eastern Italy and the Balkans, the spread of Discoid technology is recorded in a handful of sites.

In Italy, primary cases were revealed during the last two decades in addition to a number of evidence hidden in contexts previously labeled as technologically non Levallois and grouped together. Particularly in the northeastern and eastern continental and peninsular regions of Italy, the distribution of Discoid-based industries covers geographical sectors with different physical landscapes, lithic resources and a degree of visibility of the settlement systems like the eastern Pre-Alps, the Trieste Karst, and the stretch on the Adriatic coast (Peresani, 2003). Part of these lithic assemblages were surface collected at open-air sites with no faunal remains and any directly correlated pedo-stratigraphic reference. Some assemblages were examined limitedly to analytical typology (sensu F. Bordes or G. Laplace), sometimes integrated with broad technological and lithological information.

At Fumane cave, the cultural relevance of unit A9 was highlighted on several occasions, both for the Discoid production technology and for different aspect of Neanderthals’ innovative behavior, diet and subsistence (Peresani, 2022, see references therein). A9 dates are older than 44.8ky cal BP, which is the lower chronological boundary of unit A5 + A6. A9 records an almost exclusive use of the Discoid technology sandwiched from two Levallois units, A10 at the base and A6 at the top. The techno-economic layout of the A9 assemblage consists in complete and ordinary reduction sequences carried out on local cherts, occasionally on materials from longer distances (Delpiano et al., 2018), alongside with the exploitation of patinated recycled artifacts (Peresani et al., 2015). The industry is typically represented by cores, thick flakes, pseudo-Levallois points, backed flakes with sharp opposing edges, polygonal and triangular flakes, produced through a main and complex reduction sequence based on blocks and nodules, and a secondary one, simpler and less productive, based on flake-cores either originated from by-products or directly introduced onto the site. Furthermore, similarly to Istraishta assemblage, cores yielded usable blanks right from the initial steps, with the core outlines gradually changing from unidirectional to Discoid pattern, also involving ongoing arrangements with the result of polyhedral cores shapes (Delpiano and Peresani, 2017; Delpiano et al., 2017; 2018). Retouched tools are scrapers, points, denticulates and also tools purposefully modified creating a back via retouch or through the modification and adjustment of an already existing back for manual handling or possibly hafting. These adjustments imply different levels of expertise and technical skills and highlight the backing as typical, despite rarely observed, feature in the Neanderthal technological repertoires (Delpiano et al., 2019b), particularly common in Late Mousterian of Discoid technology (Gravina & Discamps, 2015; Bodu et al., 2014). However, this feature is not represented at Istraishta.

Few contexts are geographically close to Fumane cave (Fig. 12). These include the open-air site of Monte Cason -which cannot be dated - where Levallois is performed on allochtonous chert, whereas Discoid on local raw material (Bertola & Peresani, 2000), and Tagliente shelter, a few kilometers East of Fumane. This shelter is located very close to easily collectable knappable raw materials and records the co-presence of both technologies. Discoid, however, was used to exhaust Levallois cores, which is a further confirmation of its nature as highly productive and adaptable technique than the Levallois (Arzarello & Peretto, 2005). Far West, Discoid assemblages feature the Cjota Ciara Cave (Daffara et al., 2014) and sequences in caves and shelters in Liguria such as Arma delle Manie and many sites in the Balzi Rossi area (Peresani, 2003; Bietti & Negrino, 2007), although in contexts dated from the Late Middle Pleistocene to the MIS3. A MIS3 chronological position is also shared from Rio Secco Cave, where the use of Discoid technology is attested by core-edge removal flakes and pseudo-Levallois points. In this last site investigation is still ongoing to explore human mobility in a region notably poor in chert (Peresani et al., 2014). Besides Rio Secco, the only evidence of Discoid industry and tools are Divje Babe I in Slovenian Alps and Caverna degli Orsi in the Trieste Karst. Sediments chronologically placed to late MIS5 and MIS4 yielded only end-products, including a few pseudo-Levallois points made of local and allochthonous chert and limestone (Boschian, 1999–2000; Boschian & De Santis, 2011). At Divje Babe I, the discoid component was not recognized initially, but based on the published illustrations, one core from layer 7 or the upper section of the stratigraphy, has been considered as Levallois and could possibly present a Discoid technological layout (Brodar, 1999; Turk & Kavur, 1997). The finds from layer 7 have been bracketed between the ¹⁴C dates of layer 6 as a minimum age of 43.4 + 1/-1.4 ky cal BP and layer 8 as maximum age of 45.1 + 1.5/-18 ky cal BP (Turk & Kavur, 1997; Nelson, 1997) and later dated by ESR at an average between 49.0-50.1 ka (Blackwell et al., 2007; 2009). In more recent publications the presence of the discoidal cores in combination with Levallois cores and products has been recognized and it seems to have had a wider use through the stratigraphy. Even though a dedicated discussion on the discoidal reduction sequence is missing, higher frequency seems to occur in levels A, A/B, E 2, F 2, H (Turk and Turk, 2014; Turk, 2014). To the south of the Trieste Karst, in Istria, the Campanož open-air site is a large and densely packed lithic scatter found stratified between two horizons of Mediterranean terra rossa soil. The Discoid production was organized on unifacial and bifacial cores and also focused on small tools, with also indication of recycling of previously discarded artefacts. Retouched tools are scrapers and abrupt points (Banda et al., in press). Aside these, no other discoid industries have been described in the Upper Adriatic region (Peresani & Tozzi, 2018).

Comparably to Eastern Adriatic, in the Lower Western Adriatic basin, Mousterian assemblages issued with Discoid technology are absent in the Mid-Adriatic region and reappear in the south of the Italian peninsula (Fig. 12). In Santa Croce di Bisceglie Cave (undated but probably positioned in the MIS 4 after pedo-sedimentary and paleontological data), the Discoid reduction sequence aimed at obtaining sub-triangular flakes and pseudo-Levallois points (Arrighi et al., 2009). In the Salento region, Grotta del Cavallo records Discoid technology as complementary with unipolar débitage in layers M and L, while it is exclusive in the upper layers FIIIa and FII, separated from the lower ones by some markedly Levallois assemblages. Strategies of raw material use vary in the sequence, and a miniaturization in production is attested in layer M, together with the use of Callista chione shells as retouched tools (Sarti et al., 2017; Romagnoli et al., 2015). Interestingly, a recurrent débitage on secant planes which exploits only a part of the core is reported. Following the same reduction concept, in Istraishta we record many cores on slabs or flakes which we indicated as “low exploited Discoid cores” for the production of very small blanks. Finally, near to Grotta del Cavallo lies Grotta Mario Bernardini, which records an analogous sequence including the unifacial and bifacial variants of Discoid débitage and the reduction of the ventral surface of cores-on-flakes (Carmignani & Romagnoli, 2017).

As a matter of fact, the timespan bracketed by these industries is indeed wide and supports affinities with other contexts in Europe. Moreover, their age cannot be excluded in the earliest Middle Palaeolithic. The frequency of Discoid assemblages at the end of the Middle Palaeolithic frames in the decline of Levallois industries and increase of technological variability, at least in Italy (Marciani et al., 2020) but also in France and in the Iberian Peninsula (Jaubert et al., 2011; Romagnoli et al., 2022). Such a chronological and geographic distribution exists whatever the relation with the area, palaeo-environmental context, site typology, and associated faunal spectrum. Environmental data do not reveal particular site-industry correlations for sheltered multilayered sites. This is clearly expressed along the Fumane sequence, where forest landscapes and ungulate association do not record important switches in correspondence to the alternation between Levallois and Discoid assemblages (Lopez-Garcia et al., 2015).

In the Balkans, at Mujina pećina cave along the Dalmatian coast in Croatia rare elements of Discoidal technology such as a core and possibly a pseudo-Levallois point have been noted (Karavanić, 2007; Karavanić et al., 2008) (Fig. 12). Even though these elements were not recognized at first (Karavanić & Bilich-Kamenjarin, 1997; Karavanić, 2000), they have been dated to the Late Mousterian (Rink et al., 2002; Nizek & Karavanić, 2012; Boschian et al., 2017; Karavanić et al., 2021). Another case to be noted is Podvršje-Šibenička glava, an open-air site in northern Dalmatia, which contains several discoidal cores and various flakes, notches, denticulates and sidescrapers. To be noted is the absence of Levallois cores, except for one Levallois flake (Vujević, 2009; Vujević et al., 2017). Further inland in the Hrvatsko Zagorje region several important cave sites have been identified. Veternica Cave has an assemblage comprised of non-Levallois reduction methods, such as centripetal cores and "cobble wedge cores" that require further inspection before ascribing them to discoidal cores. Unfortunately, the lithic finds have lost their stratigraphic provenance and have been analyzed as a whole. Therefore, they are generally dated to the MIS 5e–5a or MIS 4 (Banda & Karavanić, 2019). The same "cobble wedge" cores have been also used extensively in Krapina cave followed by a significant presence of sidescrapers, notches, denticulates and naturally backed knives. While Levallois blanks are present throughout the sequence, they are not a common occurrence (Simek & Smith 1997). A similar situation could be also observed in the Late Mousterian site of Vinica cave, where a variety of reduction sequences on unidirectional, discoidal and bidirectional cores mostly applied to quartz pebbles have been recorded. Aside the absence of Levallois cores, a couple of Levallois products were probably brought at the site like finished products (Vukosavljević et al., 2022). In addition, also at Vindija Cave non-Levallois methods were applied mostly to quartz materials for the production of the Middle Palaeolithic assemblage (Karavanić & Smith, 1998; Blaser et al., 2002).

With regard to Bosnia and Herzegovia, even though not systematically researched, an extensive presence of discoidal cores has been noted at the assemblages of Visoko Brdo, Kamen, Londža, and Zobište. The latter is the only site in the area that has been TL dated between 97500 ± 7000 BP and 85500 ± 8500 BP (Baumler, 1987; 1988).

FIGURE 12 ABOUT HERE

In Montenegro three cave sites with Middle Paleolithic components have been identified, all containing different levels of discoidal technology (Fig. 12). Nevertheless, Levallois centripetal core exploitation seems to increase with respect to the unidirectional one when approaching the latest MP. This has been observed along some sequences, such as at Crvena Stijena and Bioče (Dogandžić & Ðuričić, 2017). Crvena Stijena is a well-known site due to its long prehistoric sequence and recent multidisciplinary research work. Discoidal cores with one or two flaking surfaces and the related products were identified throughout the sequence starting from the deepest layers XXX-XXXI to layer XII. However, a greater emphasis to unifacial discoidal cores is recorded towards the latest levels XII and XIV. Overall, the sequence ranges probably from MIS5e to the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) eruption, which capes the last MP layer XII (Morley & Woodward, 2011; Mihailović, 2017; Whallon, ed. 2017; Monnier et al., 2020). Another important site, namely Bioče was initially excavated during 1986–1997; here, the presence of discoidal technology along with Levallois was soon recognized, framed in a stratigraphic sequence estimated to range the boundary between MIS 5 and MIS 4 to the CI eruption. The lithic industry was generally considered as micro-mousterian and fairly uniform throughout the sequence (Radovanović, 1986; Đuričić, 1997; Dogandžić & Đuričić, 2017). Further recent work (2010–2015) identified even deeper layers showing a similar situation. Of particular interest is the upper Layer 1, which contains 90% of the total artifacts recovered and displays an emphasis on discoidal technology. The association of this layer with the CI eruption has been considered as evidence of the late survival of Neanderthals in the area (Derevianko et al., 2017; Pavlenok et al., 2017; Vishnevskiy et al., 2019; Dragosavac et al., 2021). The last site in Montenegro, Mališina stijena has attracted least attention with regard to its archaeological record. The presence of discoidal cores and products was shown by the initial excavations at the site during the 1980s, specifically at layers 3b13 in the southern trench and layers 13 − 12 in the western trench (Radovanović, 1986). Similar results have been noted by the recent excavations at the newly denominated Layers B2 and C1 (Derevianko et al., 2021; Shunkov et al., 2021).

Further inland, in Northern Macedonia, systematic research is still lacking, and the most important MP site is Golema Pešt cave (Fig. 12). Here, in the Late MP layers 6 and 5, both Levallois and discoidal cores on quartzite are present as well as numerous by-products. CI tephra was identified at layer 2, which has been considered to overlie Early UP layers. So far layer 3 has been dated preliminarily by means of ESR in the range of 61.8–83 ka BP, serving as a terminus ante quem for the yet unpublished ESR estimates for layers 6 and 5 (Salamanov-Korobar, 2008; 2019; Lowe et al., 2012; Blackwell et al., 2019). In addition, the recently explored open-air site of Uzun Mera has provided some evidence of MP discoid technology (Stojanovski et al., 2018).

Further south, in northwestern Greece and adjacent to southern Albania, 104 MP sites have been reported until 2015, which yielded various assemblages (Fig. 12). The dated contexts fall between MIS 5e or slightly before, and the first half of MIS3 (Elefanti & Marshall, 2015). While it is difficult to browse through such a large assortment of scientific literature, two MP sites stand out with regard to the aims of this article, namely Asprochaliko and Eleftherochori 7. Both sites are situated in the region of Epirus and not far from Istraishta. Asprochaliko is a rockshelter that was excavated and considered to have two main units, the Basal Mousterian and the Upper Mousterian. Initially the Basal Mousterian was interpreted as being mainly dominated by Levallois technology and the later, by an almost exclusive use of the discoidal one. The Upper Mousterian has been dated by two ¹⁴C dates in layer 14, spit 19 that have provided contradictory results. The first one 31.99–27.63 ky cal BP falls in the range of Upper Palaeolithic and the second result is > 44.33 ky cal BP. This later result has been generally regarded as a terminus ante quem for the Upper unit. In a similar way the Basal unit has been dated by both ¹⁴C and TL dates. A single ¹⁴C in layer 18, spit 30 has provided a rather young result that ranges between > 50-37.14 ky cal BP and two TL date results from layer 18, spits 38–40 that range between 102 ± 14 ka and 96 ± 11 ka (Bailey et al. 1983; Bailey et al., 1992; Huxtable et al., 1992; Gowlett and Carter, 1997; Papaconstantinou & Vassilopoulou 1997; Papagianni, 2000; Facorellis 2013). Recently the initial conclusions on the Basal unit have been challenged and revised, by considering it to bear a dominant Discoidal technology with a minor presence of cores on flake and vice versa for the Upper unit. Of particular note from the Basal Mousterian assemblage are 14 cores on flakes that might have utilized flakes from the initial stages of Discoidal production as blanks and are “usually semi-centripetally worked with the ventral faces of the flakes used as striking platforms” (Ligkovanlis, 2016). Such particular procedure does not seem to be present at the assemblages of Istraishta or Eleftherohori 7 but end-products such as pseudoLevallois points are particularly high at all three sites. In addition, Eleftherochori 7, an open-air site that has been surface collected and rescue excavated through 55 trenches, contains a large lithic assemblage of MP and UP components mixed between two layers. The MP assemblage is dominated by discoidal technology and seems to compare well with the Basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko (Ligkovanlis, 2013; 2017; Ligkovanlis et al., 2022).

Another specific character of Istraishta lithic assemblage relates to the micro-mousterian industries of the Balkans and the Mediterranean area, so called due to the small average size of the artefacts (Mihailović 2020), which is interpreted as the outcome of intense exploitation of the local raw material. This process also affected Levallois cores, so diminished in size as the reduction process continued because of intensified reduction, resulting in smaller numbers of residual cores (Gowlett & Carter 1997). This overall microlithisation of industries has a similar set of artefact classes as in any other Mousterian assemblages in southern Europe, including the Pontinian in Italy (Taschini, 1970; Kuhn, 1995; Rolfo et al., 2022). However, in some contexts artefacts were made of small, locally available raw materials of low quality, so their size did not result from the overexploitation of natural cobbles (Karavanić, 2004). In others, the selection of small nodules, regardless of the local availability of larger river pebbles, reveals that obtaining micro-tools was the outcome of intentional actions (Ðuričić, 2006). Given that both these factors could drive reduction of the overall size of artefacts, it would be difficult to isolate the effects of each, and most of the features of lithic industries result from a combination of their effects. These micro-Mousterian industries include retouched flakes, sidescrapers, denticulates and notched pieces as most frequent tools. Sidescrapers are generally the dominant tool, but assemblages rich in denticulates have been reported at Crvena Stijena and open-air sites along the Dalmatian coast (Karavanić, 2007). Limitations in raw material provisioning might also explain the higher tool reduction as a result of repeated rejuvenation stages in function of both the physical properties of the knapped stones and the provisioning constraints of the raw materials. However, studies at Crvena Stijena and Bioče reveal that tool reduction was not as strongly affected by raw materials as by core reduction intensity (Dogandžić & Ðuričić, 2017).

5.2. A Quaternary frame for Istraishta

Given the absence of direct dating, the geochronological position of the Istraishta paleolithic assemblage is hampered. The only possibility is related to a generic assumption that the red clayey soil analysed at the IST_1 profile is representative of the overall paleopedogenetic context evolved on the Eocene carbonate bedrock at the top of the hill. IST_1 palaeosoil has been attributed to that group of a subclass of soils known under the term of Terra Rossa, largely diffused on carbonatic bedrocks in the Mediterranean rim included a large belt of the Western Balkans (Durn, 2003). The processes of total decarbonation, clay illuviation, rubefaction, the increase in weathering-resistant mineral species, and the richness in Fe (hydr)oxides are all ascribable to the Modal Fersiallitic Red Soils (Duchaufour, 1983), developed under stable interglacial climatic conditions especially at middle latitudes (Durn, 2003). These soils, which discontinuously thicken from a few centimetres to several metres, are primarily preserved on surfaces or in cracks, sinkholes and any type of depression evolved at the expenses of limestones and dolomites. Non-primary red-clayey accumulations, the Terra Rossa-like material, are also situated in karst depressions or can contribute to form pedo-sedimentary colluvial sequences, which is not the case at Istraishta. As it lays on hard and permeable limestones and dolomites with a very low content of insoluble residue also in this part of the Balkans (Macleod, 1980), Terra Rossa soils might have incorporated external materials supplied from volcanic events, aeolian streams, shallow water transport and other processes which have reduced the importance of the primary parent material represented by the insoluble residue of bedrocks (Yaalon, 1997). The input of aeolian and pyroclastic materials from the Tyrrenian area during the Pleistocene was inferred in both the sides of the central Adriatic basin (Chiesa et al., 1990; Šušnjara, 1994), with no exclusion of wind-borne material from Africa (Rapp, 1984).

Regarding Istraishta soil, the addition of aeolian and volcanic dust is likely to be inferred, despite the identification of their sources is hampered by the high dispersion and weathering of the silt particles observed in IST_1. Loess deposition affected Istria and the Dalmatian Archipelago since the early Middle Pleistocene (Cremaschi, 1990).

Thus, given that the formation of these strongly weathered paleosols is related to a prolonged period of biostasy with no solution of continuity across the major climatic shifts of the Chibanian and the late Pleistocene, most studies in Quaternary palaeopedology interpret Terra Rossa like a polygenetic relict soil originated even since the Tertiary, the early Pleistocene or the warm interglacial periods occurred after the mid Pleistocene climate transition (see Durn 2003 for review). However, these soils are more likely to be interpreted as Vetusols (Cremaschi, 1987), where pedogenetic processes continuously acted across long spans of time since the mid-Pleistocene (Bronger & Sedov, 2002) or even the last part of late Pleistocene, as it was observed in the southern Mediterranean rim (Gvirtzman & Wieder, 2001). Comparably to other contexts, also at Istraishta this pedogenic phase was affected from the later land-use conditions, as demonstrated by the affirmation of instable conditions and the conversion of the soil to brownification.

To summarize, the geochronological position of the Istraishta Middle Palaeolithic industry collected above the Terra Rossa soil at the top of the hill remains broad, between the Chibanian and the late Pleistocene. Possibly, it might be constrained between the presumed oldest appearance of Discoid technologically featured assemblages in Southern Europe and the Balkans, which dates back to MIS5e, and the latest date of these industries in MIS3. If this latter is the case,

Discoid industries spread in southern Europe as well as in other parts of western Eurasia regardless of the geographic and palaeo-environmental context, site typology, species of mammals hunted and coexistence with other flaking methods. The presence of the discoidal method has seen a far larger occurrence in the MP record of Western Balkans, but focused works have been missing as a consequence of its limited recognizability in the scientific literature. When identified, the products of discoid technology are found in variable quantities from fully exclusively related to this method or along with Levallois products. This latter is the case for Istraishta as well as for Asprochaliko, Eleftherohori 7 and further afield at Fumane. Albeit a general categorization of such assemblages into the discoidal core reduction method, they present particularities that seem so far to be unique to the sites as it is the case of the preparation of backed pieces at Fumane (Delpiano et al., 2018) or the systematic preparation of discoidal cores, at the Basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko, from possible large flakes and the utilization of their ventral sides as striking platforms. Istraishta, Eleftherohori 7 and most of the Discoid industries share a variable presence of pseudoLevallois points produced mainly by fully or partially developed discoidal cores. The higher percentage of discoidal cores and notably lesser degree of cores on flakes seem to connect these two sites with the Basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko that has been unsystematically dated to 100 ka BP. But do these noted differences account for merely geographical adaptations or chronological and hence expectedly widespread cultural manifestations? The current level of knowledge with regard to the western Balkans does not allow for a clear identification of the reasons. A significant number of discoveries in the recent years that include surface finds and open-air sites from field surveys in northwestern Greece and south Albania (Gjipali, 2006; Galanidou, 2007; Forsén et al., 2011; Adam, 2014; Ruka et al., 2014; Galanidou et al., 2018; 2021; Adam, 2019; Ligkovanlis & Kourtessi-Philippakis, 2022) and along the eastern Adriatic fringe have been able to identify among others MP discoidal finds. Some of these findspots are related to Terra Rossa deposits as it is the case with Istraishta. Continuous efforts have been undertaken in northwestern Greece in trying to understand the taphonomy and the chrono-stratigraphic relation of the MP assemblages with terra rossa deposits. The undertaken research so far has not been able to produce secure results (Ligkovanlis et al., 2022) or improve the current resolution, which has not allowed for further interpretations. However, as in the case with the MP record of Serbia, the so called non-Levallois facies (Mihailović & Mihailović 2023) seems to concentrate from around MIS 5 to the MIS3 until the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic. Despite a lack of a fine chronological resolution the reasons for such variability can be expected to rely primarily in the very nature and versatility of the discoidal method. As it has been previously noted, the flexibility that characterizes this reduction method would have allowed for successful adaptations of highly mobile groups to a wide range of environments. Furthermore, all these sites demonstrate that the variety of exploited rocks cannot be considered a factor driving the selection of a particular flaking method. Different types were in fact indiscriminately reduced to obtain a wide range of discoid flakes. The minimal presence of Levallois cores or products at Istraishta, Eleftherohori 7, and Asprochaliko assemblages as well as variable quantities further north along the eastern Adriatic could potentially point to the interchangeable use of the two methods according to the needs of the makers. Such fluid interchangeability goes beyond strict modern definitions and has been especially emphasized in the past with regard to the relation between the recurrent centripetal Levallois and discoidal core reduction methods, but also on other centripetal, and not strictly Levallois, core reductions.

Funding

The archaeological joint work in Albania were supported by the University of Ferrara with funds available through the “Start-up” program, the Albanian Institute of Archaeology, and by the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Italian Embassy and to the Italian Institute of Culture for their assistance to the joint work. Gloria Cattabriga has revised and translated large part of the English text. Davide Margaritora has elaborated figures 1, 4 and 12.

Author contributions

Conceptualisation: All the authors. Lithic technological studies: DD, RR, MP. Original draft: MB, SB, DD, RR., MP. Figures: MB, SB, DD, RR. Review and Editing: All the authors.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Adam, E. (2014). Entopismós Néon Théseon Epochís Tou Líthou Sto Nomó Ioannínon, Dodone XLIII–XLIV (I): 1–15.
Adam, E. (2019). Diachronikí Ekmetállefsi Tou Topíou Sto Nomó Ioannínon Katá Tin Proïstorikí Período: I Martyría Ton Lithinón Technérgon, Dodone XLV–XLVI, 15–30.
Aliu, S. (2020). Kolonja. Studime Arkeologjike. Jeta, Kultura Dhe Identiteti. Korçë: Kotti
Arrighi, S., Freguglia, M., Ranaldo, F. & Ronchitelli, A. (2009). Production and use in the Lithic Industry of the Mousterian in Santa Croce (Bisceglie, Italy), Human Evolution, 24(2), 91-106
Arzarello, M. & Peretto, C. (2005). Nouvelles données sur les caractéristiques et l’évolution techno-économique de l’industrie moustérienne de Riparo Tagliente (Verona, Italie). In Molines, N., M.H. Moncel, J.L. Monnier (Eds.), Données récentsecents sur les modalités de peuplement et sur le cadre chronostratigraphique, geologique et paleogeographique des industries du paléolithique inferieur et moyen en Europe. BAR International Series, 1364, pp. 281–289.
Bailey, G. N., Carter, P. L., Gamble, C. S. & Higgs, H. P. (1983). Asprochaliko and Kastritsa: Further Investigations of Palaeolithic Settlement and Economy in Epirus (North-West Greece). Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 49 (1), 15–42. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0079497X00007945.
Bailey, G., Vangelis, P. & Derek, S. (1992). Asprochaliko and Kokkinopilos: TL Dating and reinterpretation of Middle Palaeolithic sites in Epirus, North-West Greece. Cambridge Archaeology Journal 2(1),136–44. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774300000536
Banda, M. & Karavanić, I. (2019). Mustjerska industrija špilje Veternice/The Mousterian industry of Veternica Cave. Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju u Zagrebu 36, 5–40. https://doi.org/10.33254/piaz.36.1.
Banda, M., Romagnoli, F., Komšo, D., Čuka, M. & Karavanić, I. (in press). Exploring a novelty in the Middle Palaeolithic of Croatia: preliminary data on the open-air site of Campanož. Quartär.
Baumler, M.F. (1987). Core Reduction Sequences: An Analysis of Blank Production in the Middle Paleolithic of Northern Bosnia. Ph.D., Tucson: The University of Arizona.
Baumler, M.F. (1988). Core Reduction, Flake Production, and the Middle Paleolithic Industry of Zobište (Yugoslavia). In: Harold, L., D. & A. Montet-White (Eds.), Upper Pleistocene Prehistory of Western Eurasia. Univ of Pennsylvania Museum of University Museum Monograph 54/University Museum Symposium Series 1. Philadelphia: The University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, pp. 255–74.
Bertola, S. & Peresani, M. (2000). Variabilità tecnologica in due insiemi litici di superficie dei Colli Berici. Quaderni Archeologia del Veneto, XVI, 92-96.
Bietti, A. & Negrino, F. (2007). The transition between Mousterian and Aurignacian industries in continental Italy: a status report. In Riel-Salvatore, J. & G.A. Clark (Eds.), Transitions Great and Small: New Approaches to the Study of Early Upper Paleolithic. Transitional Industries in Western Eurasia. Archaeopress, Oxford, pp. 41-59.
Blackwell, B.A.B., Šalamanov-Korobar, L., Huang, C.L.C., Zhuo, J.L., Kitanovski, B., Blickstein, J.I.B., Florentin, J.A. & Vasilevski, S. (2019). Sedimentary Radioactivity in an Upper Paleolithic-Middle Paleolithic (MP-UP) Transition Site: Increasing ESR Tooth Dating Accuracy at Golema Pešt, North Macedonia. Radiat Prot Dosim 186(1), 94–112. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncz183.
Blackwell, B.A.B., Yu, E.S.K., Skinner, A.R., Turk, I., Blickstein, J.I.B., Skaberne, D.,Turk, J. & Lau, B. (2009). Dating and Paleoenvironmental Interpretation of the Late Pleistocene Archaeological Deposits at Divje Babe I, Slovenia. In: The Mediterranean from 50,000 to 25,000 BP: Turning Points and New Directions. Oxbow Books, pp. 51-62
Blackwell, B.A.B., Yu, E.S.K., Skinner, A.R., Turk, I., Blickstein, J.I.B., Turk, J., Yin, V.S.W. & Lau, B. (2007). Esr-datiranje najdišča Divje Babe I, Slovenija/Esr dating at Divje Babe I, Slovenia. In: I. Turk (ed.), Divje babe I: upper Pleistocene palaeolithic site in Slovenia; Part I: Geology and Palaeontology. Opera Instituti archaeologici Sloveniae 13. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, pp. 123-59
Blaser, F., Kurtanjek, D. & Paunović, M. (2002). L’industrie du site néandertalien de la grotte de Vindija (Croatie): une révision des matières premières lithiques. L’Anthropologie, 106(3), 387–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-5521(02)01118-4.
Bodu, P., Salomon, H., Leroyer, M., Naton, H.-G., Lacarriere, J. & Dessoles, M. (2014). An open-air site from the recent Middle Palaeolithic in the Paris Basin (France): les Bossats at Ormesson (Seine-et-Marne), Quaternary International, 331, 39–59.
Boëda, E. (1993). Le débitage Discoïde et le débitage Levallois récurrent centripète. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 90(6), 392-404.
Boëda, E. (1994). Le Concept Levallois: variabilité des mèthodes. Monographies Centre Rercherches Archéologiques 9, CNRS, pp. 280.
Boëda, E. (1995). Caractéristiques techniques des chaînes opératoires lithiques des niveaux micoquiens de Külna (Tchécoslovaquie), Paléo, Supplément. pp. 57-72. https://doi.org/10.3406/pal.1995.1380
Bortolotti, V., Chiari, M., Marroni, M., Pandolfi, L., Principi, G. & Saccani, E. (2013). Geodynamic evolution of ophiolites from Albania and Greece (Dinaric-Hellenic belt): One, two, or more oceanic basins?, International Journal o Earth Sciences, 102(3), 783–811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-012-0835-7
Boschian, G. (1999–2000). Early Upper Pleistocene lithic industry from Caverna degli Orsi near San Dorligo della Valle (northeastern Italy). Atti Società Preistoria Protostoria Friuli-Venezia Giulia, 12(2001), 55–65.
Boschian, G. & De Santis, A. (2011). Bears and sediments at Caverna degli Orsi/Medvedja jama (Trieste, Italy). Toškan, B. (ed.), Fragments of Ice Age environments. Proceedings in Honour of Ivan Turk’s Jubilee. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae, 21, pp. 181-207.
Boschian, G., Gerometta, K., Ellwood, B. B. & Karavanić, I. (2017). Late Neandertals in Dalmatia: Site Formation Processes, Chronology, Climate Change and Human Activity at Mujina Pećina, Croatia. Quaternary International, 450, 12–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.09.066.
Bourguignon, L. & Turq, A. (2003). Une chaîne opératoire de debitage discoïde sur éclat du Moustérien a denticulés aquitain: les exemples de Champ Bossuet et de Combe-Grenal c. 14. In: Peresani, M. (Ed.), Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications. BAR International Series, 1120, pp. 131-152.
Brewer, R.C. (1964). Fabric and Mineral Analysis of Soils. Wiley, New York.
Brodar, M. (1999). Die Kultur aus der Höhle Divje babe I. Arheološki vestnik, 50.
Bronger, A. & Sedov, S.N. (2002). Vetusols and Palaeosols: natural versus man-induced environmental change in the Atlantic coastal region of Morocco. 17th World Conference on Soil Science, Paper no. 1530, pp. 1–12.
Bullock, P., Fedoroff, N., Jongerius, A., Stoops, G. J. & Tursina, T. (1985). Handbook for Soil Thin Section Description, Waine Research Publications, Albrighton.
Carrión, E., Baena, J., Conde, C., Cuartero, F. & Roca, M. (2008). Variabilidad tecnológica en el musteriense de Cantabria. In Mora, R., J. Martínez-Moreno, I. De la Torre & J. Casanova (Eds.), Variabilidad técnica del Paleolítico Medio en el sudoeste de Europa, 14, pp. 279–318.
Chiesa, S., Coltorti, M., Cremaschi, M., Ferraris, N., Floris, B. & Prosperi, L. (1990). The loess and Quaternary deposits in the Marche region. In Cremaschi, M. (ed.), The Loess in Northern and Central Italy. Centro di Studio per la Stratigrafia e Petrografia delle Alpi Centrali, Gutenberg, Milan, pp. 103–132.
Courty, M. A., Goldberg, P. & Macphail, R. I. (1989). Soils and Micromorphology in Archaeology, Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology, Cambridge University Press.
Cremaschi, M. (1987). Paleosols and Vetusols in the Central Po plain, a study in Quaternary Geology and Soil Development, Unicopli, Milan, 306 p.
Cremaschi, M. (1990). The loess in northern and central Italy: a loess basin between the Alps and the Mediterranean regions. In Cremaschi, M. (ed.), The Loess in Northern and Central Italy. Centro di Studio per la Stratigrafia e Petrografia delle Alpi Centrali, Gutenberg, Milan, pp 15–19.
Daffara, S., Arzarello, M., Berruti, G., Berruto, G., Bertè, D., Berto, C. & Casini, A.I. (2014) - The Mousterian lithic assemblage of the Ciota Ciara cave (Piedmont, Northern Italy): exploitation and conditioning of raw materials. Journal of Lithic Studies 1, 2.
Dauvois, M. (1981). De la simultanéité des concepts Kombewa et Levallois dans l’Acheuléen du Maghreb et du Sahara nord-occidental. In Roubet, C., H. J. Hugot, G. Souville (Eds.), Préhistoire Africaine. Mélanges offerts au Doyen Lionel Balout. Editions A.D.P.F, Paris, pp. 313-321.
Delagnes, A. (1990). Analyse technologique de la méthode de débitage de l'Abri Suard (La Chaise-de-Vouthon, Charente). Paléo, 2, 81-88
Delagnes, A. & Rendu, W. (2011). Shifts in Neandertal mobility, technology and subsistence strategies in western France. Journal of Archaeological Science, 38, 1771-1783. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.007
Delpiano, D., Heasley, K. & Peresani, M. (2018). Assessing Neanderthal land use and lithic raw material management in Discoid technology. Journal of Anthropological Sciences, 96, 1-22.
Delpiano, D. & Peresani, M. (2017). Exploring Neanderthal skills and lithic economy. The implication of a refitted Discoid reduction sequence reconstructed using 3D virtual analysis. Comptes Rendu Palevol, 16, 865-877. doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2017.06.008
Delpiano, D., Peresani, M. & Pastoors, A. (2017). The contribution of 3D visual technology to the study of Palaeolithic knapped stones based on refitting: an application. Digital Applications to Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, 4, 28-38. doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2017.02.002
Delpiano, D., Cocilova, A., Zangrossi, F. & Peresani, M. (2019a). Potentialities of the virtual analysis of lithic refitting: case studies from the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. In Romagnoli, F. & M. Vaquero (Eds.), The Big Puzzle 30 years after: a multidisciplinary, Paleolithic perspective. Archaeological & Anthropological Sciences, 11, 4467–4489. doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00779-7
Delpiano, D., Zupancich, A. & Peresani, M. (2019b). Innovative Neanderthals: Results from an integrated analytical approach applied to backed stone tools, Journal of Archaeological Science, 110, 105011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2019.105011
Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., Bulatović, L., Pavlenok, K.K., Ulyanov, V.A., Kozlikin, M.B. & Kandyba, A.V. (2017). New Findings on the Middle Paleolithic of the Eastern Adriatic: The Earliest Settlement at Bioče, Montenegro’. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 45(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.17746/1563-0110.2017.45.1.003-014.
Derevianko, A.P., Shunkov, M.V., Bulatovich, L., Kozlikin, M.B., Anoikin, A.A., Pavlenok, K.K., Agadzhanyan, A.K., Ulianov, A.V. & Vishnevskiy, A.V. (2021). Novoye v Paleolitovedenii Vostochnoy Adriatiki. Rossiysko-Chernogorskiye Issledovaniya v 2008–2021 Godakh. Novosibirsk: IAET SB RAS Publ
Dogandžić, T. & Ðuričić, L. (2017). Lithic production strategies in the Middle Paleolithic of the southern Balkans. Quaternary International, 450, 68-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.03.011
Dragosavac, S., Plavsic, S. & Predrag, R. (2021). The Impact of the Campanian Ignimbrite (CI) - Eruption on Palaeolithic Settlement Patterns in the Central Balkans’. In: Stasa Babic (ed.), Archaeology of Crisis, Belgrade: Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, pp. 25–42. http://reff.f.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/3687
Duchaufour, P.H. (1983). Pedologie: Pedogenesis and Classification. Mason et Cie, Paris-New York-Barcelona-Milan, pp. 447.
Đuričić, L. (1997). Artifacts of Sandstone and Limestone on the Site of Bioče’. Glasnik Srpskog Arheološkog Društva, 13, 59–70.
Đuričić, L. (2006). A Contribution to Research on Bioče Mousterian. Glasnik Srpskog Arheološkog Društva, 22, 179–96.
Durn, G., Ottner, F. & Slovenec, D. (1999). Mineralogical and geochemical indicators of the polygenetic nature of terra rossa in Istria, Croatia, Geoderma, 91, 125–150.
Durn, G. (2003). Terra rossa in the Mediterranean region: parent materials, composition and origin, Geologia Croatica, 56(1), 83-100.
Eftimi, R. & Sara, F. (2022). Quantity and quality of groundvater of intermountain basin of Korça in Albania and implication for sustainable management. Geologìcnij žurnal, 4, 45-64. https://doi.org/10.30836/igs.1025-6814.2022.4.261519
Elefanti, P. & Marshall, G. (2015). Late Pleistocene Hominin Adaptations in Greece’. In: Cowar, F., F. Wenban-Smith, M. Pope & R. Hosfield (Eds.), Settlement, Society and Cognition in Human Evolution: Landscapes in Mind. Cambridge University Press, pp 189-213. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139208697.012
Facorellis, Y. (2013). Radiocarbon Dates from Archaeological Sites in Caves and Rockshelters in Greece. In Mavridis, F. & J. T. Jensen (Eds.), Stable Places and Changing Perceptions: Cave Archaeology in Greece, 182:19–72. BAR International Series 2558. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Faivre, J.P., Discamps, E., Gravina, B., Turq, A., Guadelli, J.L. & Lenoir, M. (2014). The contribution of lithic production systems to the interpretation of Mousterian industrial variability in south-western France: The example of Combe-Grenal (Dordogne, France). Quaternary International, 350, 227-240.
FAO (2006). Guidelines for Soil Description, fourth ed. FAO, Food and Agricolture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp 97.
Forsén, B., Forsén, J., Lazari, K. & Tikkala, E. (2011). Catalogue of Sites in the Central Kokytos Valley, In Forsén, B. & Tikkala, E. (Eds.), Thesprotia Expedition II: Environment and Settlement Patterns, XVI, 73–122. Papers and Monographs of the Finnish Institute at Athens. Helsinki: Suomen Ateenan instituutin säätiö (Foundation of the Finnish Institute at Athens).
Fouache, E., Desruelles, S., Magny, M., Bordon, A., Oberweiler, C., Coussot, C., Touchais, G., Lera, P., Lézine, A.M., Fadin, L. & Roger R. (2010). Palaeogeographical Reconstructions of Lake Maliq (Korça Basin, Albania) between 14,000 BP and 2000 BP. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 525–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2009.10.017
Galanidou, N. (2007). I Proïstoría Tis Anthrópinis Katagogís Sti Lekáni Tis Límnis Tis Kastoriás: Oi Martyríes Apó Ti Syllogí Pantazópoulou, To Archaiologikó Érgo Sti Makedonía Kai Thráki 21, 1–6.
Galanidou, N. & Papoulia, C. (2023). Between the Aegean and the Adriatic: The Balkan Palaeolithic and the Sea. In Ruiz-Redondo, A. & W. Davies, (Eds.), The Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of South-Eastern Europe, Proceedings of the British Academy, 258, Oxford University Press, pp. 225–251.
Galanidou, N., Gatsi, M., Vikatou, O., Vasilakis, A., Morgan, C., Forsén, J., Staikou, V., Papoulia, C. & Zervoudakis, P. (2021). Prehistoric settlement in the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago and its Ionian island connections, In Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, C. & C. Papoulia, (Eds.), Archaeology of the Ionian Sea: Landscapes, seascapes and the circulation of people, goods and ideas from the Palaeolithic to the end of the Bronze Age. Oxford & Philadelphia: Oxbow Books.
Galanidou, N., Vikatou, O., Stavropoulou-Gatsi, M., Vasilakis, A., Staikou, V., Iliopoulos, G., Veikou, M., et al. (2018). Archaiologikí Érevna Epifaneías Sto Esoterikó Archipélagos Tou Ioníou. In To Archaiologikó Érgo Stin Aitoloakarnanía Kai Ti Lefkáda: Praktiká 2ou Diethnoús Istorikoú Kai Archaiologikoú Synedríou, I.P. 6-8 Dekemvríou 2013, 445–73. Mesolongi: Eforeía Archaiotíton Aitoloakarnanías kai Lefkádas.
Gjipali, I. (2006). Recent Research on the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Archaeology of Albania. In: Bejko, L. & R. Hodges, (Eds.), New Directions in Albanian Archaeology: Studies Presented to Muzafer Korkuti, International Centre for Albanian Archaeology Monograph Series 1. Oxbow Books, pp. 31-42.
Gjipali, I. (2011). Kërkime Arkeologjike Për Prehistorinë e Hershme Në Shqipërinë Jugore. In: Epiri Antik-Kaonia: Simpoziumi I Dhe II Shkencor Ndërkombëtar. Universiteti ‘Eqrem Çabej’, Gjirokastër, pp. 33-38.
Gjipali, I. (2012). Epoka e Gurit Dhe Shqipëria. Tiranë: Botart.
Gjipali, I. (2014). Stone Age Investigations in Albania (1998-2013), In: Përzhita, L., I. Gjipali, G. Hoxha & B. Muka (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Congress of Albanian Archaeological Studies: 65th Anniversary of Albanian Archaeology (21-22 November, Tirana 2013), Tiranë: Centre for Albanian Studies and Institute of Archaeology, pp. 53-64.
Gowlett, J.A.J. & Carter, P.L. (1997). The Basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko Rockshelter, Louros Valley’. In Bailey, G. (ed.), Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece. Vol. 2: Klithi in Its Local and Regional Setting. McDonald Institute Monographs. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, pp. 441-57.
Gowlett, J.A.J., Carter, P.L., (1997). The basal Mousterian of Asprochaliko rockshelter, louros valley. In Bailey, G. (ed.), Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece. Vol. 2: Klithi in Its Local and Regional Setting. McDonald Institute Monographs. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, pp. 441-458.
Gravina, B. & Discamps, E. (2015). MTA-B or not to be? Recycled bifaces and shifting hunting strategies at Le Moustier and their implication for the late Middle Palaeolithic in southwestern France, Journal of Human Evolution, 84, 83–98.
Gvirtzman, G. & Wieder, M. (2001). Climate of the last 53,000 years in the eastern Mediterranean, based on soil-sequence stratigraphy in the coastal plain of Israel. Quaternary Science Reviews 20/18, 1827–1849.
Higham, T., Douka, K., Wood, R., Bronk Ramsey, C., Brock, F. et al. (2014). The timing and spatio-temporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance. Nature, 512: 306-309. doi.org/10.1038/nature13621
Huxtable, J., Gowlett, J.A.J., Bailey, G.N., Carter, P.L. & Papaconstantinou, V. (1992). Thermoluminescence Dates and a New Analysis of the Early Mousterian from Asprochaliko. Current Anthropology, 33(1), 109–14. https://doi.org/10.1086/204040
Inizan, M.L., Reduron-Ballinger, M., Roche, H. & Tixier, J. (1995). Préhistoire de la pierre taillée t. 4 - Technologie de la pierre taillée. Meudon, CREP.
IUSS Working Group WRB 2015, World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, update 2015 International soil classification system for naming soils and creating legends for soil maps, “World Soil Resources Reports”, 106, FAO, Rome.
Karavanić, I. (2000). Research on the Middle Palaeolithic in Dalmatia, Croatia. Antiquity, 74(286), 777–78. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00060403.
Karavanić, I. (2004), The Middle Paleolithic settlement of Croatia. In: Conard, N. J. (ed.), Settlement Dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and Middle Stone Age. Tübingen Publications in Prehistory, Introductory Volume. Tübingen: Kerns Verlag, pp 185–200.
Karavanic, I. (2007). The Middle/Upper Paleolithic Interface in Croatia. In Riel-Salvatore, J. & Clarke, G.A. (Eds.), New Approaches to the Study of Early Upper Paleolithic ‘Transitional’ Industries in Western Eurasia: Transitions Great and Small, BAR International Series. Oxford: Archaeopress, 1620, 75–89.
Karavanić, I. & Banda, M. (2023). The Middle Palaeolithic of South-Eastern Europe. In Ruiz-Redendo, A. & W. Davies (Eds.), The Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherers of South-Eastern Europe. Proceedings of the British Academy, 258. Oxford University Press, pp. 60-106.
Karavanić, I., Hellstrom, J., Rabeder, G., Vukosavljević, N., Banda, M. & Smith, F.H. (2021). New U-Th Dates from Vindija, Velika Pećina (Kličevica) and Mujina Pećina and Their Implications for Chronology of the Middle Paleolithic in Croatia. Collegium Antropologicum, 45(1), 1–10.
Karavanić, I., Miracle, P.T., Culiberg, M., Kurtanjek, D., Zupanič, J., Golubić, V., Paunović, M. et al (2008). The Middle Paleolithic from Mujina Pećina, Dalmatia, Croatia. Journal of Field Archaeology, 33(3), 259–77.
Karavanić, I. & Smith, F. H. (1998). The Middle/Upper Paleolithic Interface and the Relationship of Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans in the Hrvatsko Zagorje, Croatia. Journal of Human Evolution, 34(3), 223–48. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1997.0192
Kuhn, S.L. (1995). Mousterian lithic technology: An ecological perspective. Princeton University Press.
Jaubert, J. & Farizy, C. (1995). Levallois débitage: exclusivity, absence or coexistence with other operative schemes (Garonne Basin, SW France). In Dibble, H.L. & O. Bar-Yosef (Eds.), The definition and interpretation of Levallois technology. Mon. World Archaeology, Prehistory Press, 23, Wisconsin, pp. 227-247.
Jaubert, J. & Mourre, V. (1996). Coudoulous, Le Rescondudou, Mauran: diversité des matières premières, variabilité ou homogénéité des méthodes. In Bietti, A. & S. Grimaldi (1996), Reduction Processes in the European Mousterian. Quaternaria Nova, VI, 313-341.
Ligkovanlis, S. (2013). A Rare Case of “Technological Connectivity” across the Adriatic Sea during the Middle Palaeolithic; The Eleftherochori 7 Mousterian Lithic Assemblage in Its South/Southeast European Context. In: Bombardieri, L., L. D’Agostino, G. Guarducci, V. Orsi & S. Valentini (Eds.), SOMA 2012 Identity and Connectivity, BAR International Series 2581, Oxford: Archaeopress, Oxford II, pp. 645–656.
Ligkovanlis, S. (2016). On Lithic Technology Terms and Semantics. The Example of the Asprochaliko Rockshelter Middle Palaeolithic Stone Industry. In: Elefanti, P., N. Andreasen, P.N. Kardulias & G. Marshall (Eds.), Lithics Past and Present. Perspectives on Chipped Stone Studies in Greece. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology. Uppsala: Åströms Förlag, CXLIV, 95–110.
Ligkovanlis, S. (2017). New Insights into the Upper Pleistocene Archaeology of Northwestern Greece: The Evidence from Three Open-Air Sites and Its Implication for Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers’ Activity and Behaviour in Southeastern Europe. Journal of Greek Archaeology, 2, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.32028/jga.v2i.569
Ligkovanlis, S., Iliopoulos, G., Palli, O., Tzortzatou, A. & Tsakanikou, P. (2022). Palaeolithic Artifact Taphonomy in Terra Rossa Sites at Northwestern Greece Revisited: Two New Case Studies. Mediterrarean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 22(3), 215–29. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7306045
Ligkovanlis, S. & Kourtessi-Philippakis, G. (2022). Palaeolithic Chipped Stone Industries from Zakynthos, Ionian Islands, Greece. Interpreting the New Evidence within the Western Greek and Adriatic Context. In: Souyoudzoglou-Haywood, C. & C. Papoulia (Eds.), Archaeology of the Ionian Sea: Landscapes, Seascapes and the Circulation of People, Goods and Ideas from the Palaeolithic to the End of the Bronze Age, 41–51. Oxford & Philadelphia: Oxbow Books.
Lindhorst, K., Krastel, S., Reicherter, K., Stipp, M., Wagner, B. & Schwenk, T. (2015). Sedimentary and tectonic evolution of Lake Ohrid (Macedonia/Albania). Basin Research, 27(1), 84-101. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12063
López-García, J.M., Dalla Valle, C., Cremaschi, M. & Peresani, M. (2015). Reconstruction of the Neanderthal and Modern Human landscape and climate from the Fumane cave sequence (Verona, Italy) - using small-mammal assemblages. Quaternary Science Reviews, 128, 1-13. doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.09.013
Macleod, D.A. (1980). The origin of the red Mediterranean soils in Epirus, Greece. Journal of Soil Science, 31, 125–136.
Mercier, N., Rink, W. J., Rodrigues, K., Morley, M.W., Linden, M.V. & Whallon, R. (2017). Radiometric Dating of the Crvena Stijena Sequence. In Whallon, R. (ed), Crvena Stijena in Cultural and Ecological Context: Multidisciplinary Archaeological Research in Montenegro. Podgorica: National Museum of Montenegro, Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts, pp. 140-49.
Merino, E., Banerjee, A. & Dworkin, S. (2006). Dust, terra rossa, replacement, and karst: serendipitous geodynamics in the critical zone, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70 (18), A416.
Mihailović, D. (2020). Push-and-pull factors of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Balkans. Quaternary International, 551, 47-62
Mihailović, D. & Mihailović, B. R. (2023). Chronology and Succession of Palaeolithic Technocomplexes in Serbia, Zbornik Narodnog Muzeja – Arheologija, 26 (1), 11–37. https://doi.org/10.18485/znms_arh.2023.26.1.1.
Mihailović, D. & Whallon, R. (2017). Crvena Stijena Revisited: The Late Mousterian Assemblages, Quaternary International, 450, 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.12.026.
Moncel, M.H., Patou-Mathis, M. & Otte, M. (1998). Halte de chasse au chamois au Paléolithique moyen: la couche 5 de la grotte Scladina (Sclayn, Namur, Belgique). In Brugal, J.P., L. Meignen & M. Patou-Mathis (Eds.), Economie préhistorique: les comportements de subsistance au Paléolithique, Editions APDCA, Sophia-Antipolis, pp. 291–308.
Monnier, G., Tostevin, G., Pajović, G., Borovonić, N. & Baković, M. (2020). Nova Istraživanja Paleolitskog Nalazišta Crvena Stijena, Istorijski Kontekst. Istorijski Zapisi XCIII (1–2), 71–108.
Morley, M. W. & Woodward, J.C. (2011). The Campanian Ignimbrite (Y5) - Tephra at Crvena Stijena Rockshelter, Montenegro. Quaternary Research, 75(3), 683–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2011.02.005
Mourre, V. (2003). Discoïde ou pas Discoïde? Réflexions sur la pertinence des critères techniques définissant le débitage Discoïde. In: Peresani, M. (ed.), Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications. British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 1120.
Munsell Soil Color Charts (2000). Munsell Soil Color Charts - Revised Edition, New Windsor, Munsell® Color.
Murphy, C.P. (1986). Thin Section Preparation of Soils and Sediments. AB Academic Publishers, Berkhamsted, pp. 149.
Nelson, E. (1997). Radiokarbonske datacije kosti in oglja iz Divjih bab I/Radiocarbon dating of bone and charcoal from Divje babe I Cave’. In: Turk, I. (ed.), Moustérienska ‘koščena piščal’ in druge najdbe iz Divjih bab i v Sloveniji/Mousterian ‘bone flute’: and other finds from Divje Babe i Cave siet in Slovenia. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 2. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni Center SAZU, pp. 51-54.
Nicosia, C., Trombino, L. & Stoops, G. (2010). Traduzione italiana della terminologia presenti in “Guidelines for Analysis and description of soil and regolith thin section” (Stoops, 2003), Il Quaternario, 23(1), 15-20.
Nicosia, C. & Stoops, G. (2017). Archaeological Soil and Sediment Micromorphology, Chichester, Wiley Blackwell, pp. 475.
Nizek, R. & Karavanić, I. (2012). Prostorna analiza nalaza musterijenskih razina D2, E1, E2 i E3 Mujine pećine/The Spatial Analysis of Finds from Mousterian Levels D2, E1, E2 and E3 at Mujina pećina’. Prilozi Instituta za arheologiju u Zagrebu, 29, 25–55.
Palombo, M.R. & Mussi, M. (2006). Large mammal guilds at the time of the first human colonization of Europe: the case of the Italian Pleistocene record. Quaternary International, 149, 94-103.
Papaconstantinou, V. & Vassilopoulou, D. (1997). The Middle Palaeolithic Industries of Epirus. In Bailey, G. (ed.), Klithi: Palaeolithic Settlement and Quaternary Landscapes in Northwest Greece. Vol. 2: Klithi in Its Local and Regional Setting, McDonald Institute Monographs. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, pp. 459–80.
Papagianni, D. (2000). Middle Palaeolithic Occupation and Technology in Northwestern Greece: The Evidence from Open-Air Sites. BAR International Series 882. Oxford: BAR Publishing.
Pavlenok, K.K., Kozlikin, M.B., Kandyba, A.V., Bulatović, L., Derevianko, A.P. & Shunkov, M.V. (2017). Style, Deficit or Reduction? Analysing the Bioče Micro-Mousterian/Stil, Mangel Oder Reduzierung? Die Analyse Des Mikro-Mousterien von Bioče. Quartär, 64, 95–106. https://doi.org/10.7485/QU64_4.
Peresani, M. (2003). An initial overview of the middle Palaeolithic discoid industries in Central-Northern Italy. In Peresani, M. (ed.), Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications. British Archaeological Reports, Int Ser 1120, pp. 209-223.
Peresani, M., Gjipali, I., Romandini, M. & Ruka, R. (2016). Shqipëria Jug-Perëndimore, Një Korridor Gjatë Paleolitit Për Në Brigjet Veriore Të Mesdheut. In Lepore, G. (ed.), Qytetet Antike Dhe Peizazhi Në Shqipëri: Një Shekull Kërkimesh Arkeologjike Italo-Shqiptare. Adrias. Bari: Edipuglia, 12, 159-63.
Peresani, M., Monegato, G., Ravazzi, C., Bertola, S., Margaritora, D., Breda, M., Fontana, A., Fontana, F., Janković, I., Karavanic, I., Komšo, D., Mozzi, P., Pini, R., Furlanetto, G., De Amicis, G. M., Perhoč, Z., Posth, C., Ronchi, L., Rossato, S., Vukosavljević, N. & Zerboni, A. (2021). Hunter-gatherers across the Great Adriatic-Po Region during the Last Glacial Maximum: environmental and cultural dynamics. Quaternary International, 581-582, 128-163. doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2020.10.007
Peresani, M., Romandini, M., Duches, R., Jéquier, C., Nannini, N., Pastoors, A., Picin, A., Schmidt, I., Vaquero, M. & Weniger, G.C. (2014). New evidence for the Mousterian and Gravettian at Rio Secco Cave, Italy. Journal of Field Archaeology, 39(4), pp. 401-416.
Peresani, M. & Tozzi, C. (2018). Il Paleolitico e il Mesolitico del Friuli-Venezia Giulia: quarant’anni di studi e ricerche. In: Borgna, E., G.P. Càssola, S. Corazza (Eds.), Preistoria e Protostoria del Caput Adriae, Atti XLIX Riunione Scientifica Istituto Italiano di Preistoria e Protostoria. Studi di Preistoria e Protostoria, 5, pp. 45-59.
Perhoč, Z. (2020). Rohmaterial für die Produktion von Steinartefakten im Spätjungpaläolithikum, Mesolithikum und Neolithikum Dalmatiens (Kroatien). PhD thesis on the Ruprecht-Karls-University of Heidelberg, Germany.
Radovanović, I. (1986). Novija Istraživanja Paleolita i Mezolita u Crnoj Gori’. Glasnik Srpskog Arheološkog Društva, 3, 63–77
Rapp, A. (1984). Are terra rossa soils in Europe eolian deposits from Africa? Geologiska Foreninges et Stockholm Forhandlingar, 105, 161–168.
Rink, W.J., Karavanić, I., Pettitt, B.P., Smith, F.H. & Bartoll, J. (2002). ESR and AMS-Based 14C Dating of Mousterian Levels at Mujina Pećina, Dalmatia, Croatia. Journal of Archaeological Science, 29(9), 943–52. https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.2001.0789.
Rolfo, M.F., Ceruleo, P., Marra, F., Jicha, B. & Gatta, M. (2022). Exploring the lithic variability of the Mousterian (MIS 9–3) open‑air sites of the Pontine Plain (Central Italy). Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 5, 1-28.
Romagnoli, F., Chabai, V., Gravina, B., Hérisson, D., Hovers, E., Moncel, M.H., Peresani, M., Uthmeier, T., Bourguignon, L., Chacón, M.G., Di Modica, K., Faivre, J.P., Kolobova, K., Malinski-Buller, A., Neruda, P., Rios Garaizar, J., Weiss, M., Wiśniewski, A. & Wragg Sykes, R. (2022). Neanderthal technological variability: a wide-ranging geographical perspective of the final Middle Palaeolithic. In Romagnoli, F., F. Rivals & S. Benazzi (Eds.), Updating Neanderthals. Elsevier monographies, pp. 163-204.
Ruka, R. (2018). An Overview on Early Prehistoric Evidence from the Korça Basin. In: Lamboley, J.-L., L. Përzhita, A. Skënderaj (Eds.), L’Illyrie Méridionale et l’Epire Dans l’antiquité: Actes Du VI Colloque International de Tirana (20-23 Mai 2015). Tiranë: ALSA.
Ruka, R., Gjipali, I., Galaty, M. L. & Bajramaj, N. (2014). Lithics at One End of Circum-Adriatic: Case Studies from the Southernmost Albanian Coastal Lowland. In Përzhita, L., I. Gjipali, G. Hoxha & B. Muka (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Congress of Albanian Archaeological Studies: 65th Anniversary of Albanian Archaeology (21-22 November, Tirana 2013), 93–106. Tiranë: Centre for Albanian Studies and Institute of Archaeology.
Salamanov-Korobar, L. (2008). First Paleolithic Research in the R. Macedonia (FYROM): The Cave Golema Pesht near the Village Zdunje - Preliminary Results. In Darlas, A. & D. Mihailović (Eds.), The Palaeolithic of the Balkans: Proceedings of the XV World Congress UISPP (Lisbon, 4-9 September 2006). BAR International Series 1819. Oxford: Archaeopress, 17, 85–92.
Šalamanov-Korobar, L. (2019). Analiza Na Delkanite Kameni Artefakti Od Srednopaleolitskite Sloevi vo Pešterata Golema Pešt’. Macedoniae Acta Archaeologica, 21, 11–36.
Sarti, L., Romagnoli, F., Carmignani, L. & Martini, F. (2017). Grotta del Cavallo (scavi Sarti): tradizione e innovazione nella sequenza musteriana sulla base dell’indicatore litico, Studi di Preistoria e Protostoria (4), Preistoria e Protostoria della Puglia, pp. 131-138.
Schmid, S.M., Bernoulli, D., Fügenschuh, B., Matenco, L., Schefer, S., Schuster, R., Tischler, M. & Ustaszewski, K. (2008). The Alpine-Carpathian-Dinaridic orogenic system: correlation and evolution of tectonic units. Swiss Journal of Geosciences, 01, 139–183.
Schwertmann, U.T.R.M. & Taylor, R.M. (1989). Iron oxides, Minerals in soil environments, 1(1989), 379-438.
Sherreiks, R. & Boudagher-Fadel, M. (2021). The closure of the Vardar ocean (the western domain of the northern Neotethys) from early Middle Jurassic to Paleocene time, based on surface geology of eastern Pelagonia and the Vardar zone, biostratigraphy, and seismic-tomographic images of the mantle below the Central Hellenides. UCL Open: Environment Preprint. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444/000078.v3
Shunkov, M.V., Anoikin, A.A., Kozlikin, M.B., Bulatovich, L. & Derevianko, A.P. (2021). Mnogosloynaya Paleoliticheskaya Stoyanka Malishina Stena v Chernogorii: Rezul’taty Issledovaniy. Goda. Problemy Arkheologii, Etnografii, Antropologii Sibiri i Sopredel’nykh Territoriy 27, 349–54.
Simek, J.F. & Smith, F.H. (1997). Chronological Changes in Stone Tool Assemblages from Krapina (Croatia). Journal of Human Evolution, 32(6), 561–75. https://doi.org/10.1006/jhev.1996.0129
Skarpelis, N. (2020). Silcrete and chert as source rocks of early prehistoric artifacts: the case of central Evia (Greece). Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 21(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4284401
Slimak, L. (1999). Pour une individualisation des Moustériens de type Quina dans le quart sud-est de la France? La Baume de Néron (Soyons, Ardeche) - et Le Champ Grand (Saint-Maurice-sur-Loire, Loire), premières données. Bulletin de la Société Préhistorique Française, 96(2), 133-144.
Slimak, L. (2003). Les débitages Discoïdes moustériens: évaluation d’un concept technologique. In: Peresani, M. (ed.), Discoid Lithic Technology. Advances and Implications. British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 1120, pp. 33-65.
Soil Survey Staff (2014). Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 12th ed. USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington DC, pp 360.
Stojanovski, D., Arzarello, M. & Nacev, T. (2018). Middle Paleolithic Stone-Tool Technology from the Central Balkans: The Site of Uzun Mera (Eastern Republic of Macedonia). Quaternary International, 476, 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2018.03.003.
Stoops, G. (2003). Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections. Soil Sciences Society of America, Inc. Madison, Wisconsin, USA.
Stoops, G. (2021). Guidelines for Analysis and Description of Soil and Regolith Thin Sections, 2nd Edition, Wiley & Sons, Inc, pp 240.
Stoops, G., Marcelino, V. & Mees, F. (2018). Interpretation of Micromorphological Features of Soils and Regoliths, 2nd Edition, Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp 1000.
Šušnjara, A., Šćavničar, B. & Gabrić, A. (1994). The occurrence of vitric tuff in the Quaternary deposits of Gljev in Dalmatia (Southern Croatia). Geologia Croatica, 47(2), 193–198.
Tagari, D., Vergely, P. & Aliaj, S. (1993). Tectonique polyphasée plio-quaternaire en Albanie orientale (région de Korça-Pogradeçi). Bulletin de la Société Géologique Française, 164(5), 727–737.
Taschini, M. (1970). La Grotta Breuil al Monte Circeo. Per una impostazione dello studio del Pontiniano. Origini, IV, 45–78.
Thiébaut, C. (2013). Discoid debitage stricto sensus: a method adapted to highly mobile Middle Paleolithic groups? Palethnologie [Online], Contributions. https://doi.org/10.4000/palethnologie.580
Thiébaut, C., Meignen, L. & Lévêque, F. (2009). Les dernières occupations moustériennes de Saint-Césaire (Charente-Maritime, France): diversité des techniques utilisées et comportements économiques pratiqués, Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, 106 (4), 691-714.
Thibaut, D., Karavanić, I., Comeskey, D., Kubiak, C., Korlević, P., Hajdinjak, M., Radović, S., Procopio, N., Buckley, M., Pääbo, S. & Higham, T. (2017). Direct dating of Neanderthal remains from the site of Vindija Cave and implications for the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A., 114, 10606–10611.
Torrent, J. (2005). Mediterranean soils, Encyclopedia of Soils in the Environment, 2, 418-27.
Turk, I., Kavur, B. (1997). Pregled in opis paleolitskih orodij, kurišč in ognjišč/Review and description of palaeolithic tools and hearths. In: Turk, I. (ed.), Moustérienska ‘koščena piščal’ in druge najdbe iz Divjih bab i v Sloveniji = Mousterian ‘bone flute’: and other finds from Divje Babe i Cave siet in Slovenia. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 2. Ljubljana: Znanstvenoraziskovalni Center SAZU, pp 119-56.
Turk, M. (2014). Tipologija kamnitih artefaktov. In: Turk, I. (ed.), Divje babe I: Paleolitsko najdišče mlajšega pleistocena v Sloveniji: 2. del: Arheologija/Divje babe I: Upper Pleistocene Palaeolithic site in Slovenia: Part 2: Archaeology. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 29. Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, pp 153-70.
Turk, M. & Turk, I. (2014), Tehnologija, uporabljena pri izdelavi artefaktov. In: Turk, I. (ed.), Divje babe I: Paleolitsko najdišče mlajšega pleistocena v Sloveniji: 2. del: Arheologija/Divje babe I: Upper Pleistocene Palaeolithic site in Slovenia: Part 2: Archaeology. Opera Instituti Archaeologici Sloveniae 29. Ljubljana: ZRC SAZU, Založba ZRC, pp 57-78.
Turq, A., Faivre, J.P., Gravina, B. & Bourguignon, L. (2017). Building models of Neanderthal territories from raw material transports in the Aquitaine Basin (southwestern France). Quaternary International, 433, 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.02.062
Vaquero, M., Vallverdú, J., Rosell, J., Pastó, I., Allué, E. (2001). Neandertal Behavior at the Middle Palaeolithic Site of Abric Romaní, Capellades, Spain, Journal of Field Archaeology, 28(1/2), 93-114.
Vishnevskiy, A.V., Pavlenok, K.K., Kozlikin, M.B., Ulyanov, V.A., Derevianko, A.P. & Shunko, M.V. (2019). A Neanderthal Refugium in the Eastern Adriatic’. Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia, 47(4), 3–15.
Vujević, D., Perhoč, Z. & Ivančić, T. (2017). Micro-Mousterian in Northern Dalmatia. Quaternary International, 450, 50–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.11.019
Vujević, D. (2009). The Relationship between the Middle Palaeolithic Sites in the Zadar Hinterland and the Zadar Islands. In Forenbaher, S. (ed.), A Connecting Sea: Maritime Interaction in Adriatic Prehistory. BAR International Series 2037. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp 1-11. https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407306148
Vukosavljević, N., Gužvica, G., Radanović-Gužvica, B., Kurtanjek, D. & Karavanić, I. (2022). Mousterian Lithic Assemblage from Vinica Cave (Hrvatsko Zagorje, Croatia) - – New Insights into Regional Middle Paleolithic Technological Behavior. Arheološki Vestnik, 73, 7–28. https://doi.org/10.3986/AV.73.01
Whallon, R. (2017). Crvena Stijena in Cultural and Ecological Context: Multidisciplinary Archaeological Research in Montenegro. Podgorica: National Museum of Montenegro, Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts.
Xomo, A., Kodra, A., Xhafa, Z. & Shallo, M. (2002). Gjeologjia e Shqipërisë. Stratigrafia, Magmatizmi, Metamorfizmi, Tektonika, Neotektonika dhe Evolucioni Paleogjeografik dhe Gjeodinamik, Tirana, 464 p.
Yaalon, D.H. (1997). Soils in the Mediterranean region: what makes them different? Catena, 28, 157–169.

Table 1. Field description notes of three profiles at the edge of the Istraishta hill.

Profile 1: IST_1 (40°31'41.3''N 20°43'17.9''E 1,043.2 m. a.s.l.) Profile facing south, at the top of the southern slope of the relief
horizon	Description
A	0-3 cm, silt loam, dark brown (7.5YR3/3), moderate to strong very fine granular structure, not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), very few subrounded fine gravel of limestone, common biological activity (burrows), common medium and fine herbaceous roots, gradual linear boundary to:
AB	3-45 cm, silt loam, dark brown (7.5YR3/3), moderate to strong very fine granular structure (primary) moderate fine angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), few subrounded clasts of limestone (max. 7 cm) with surfaces altered by karst dissolution, common biological activity (burrows), common medium and fine herbaceous roots, gradual linear boundary to:
Bw	45-75 cm, silty clay loam, dark reddish brown (5YR3/3), moderate to strong very fine granular structure (primary) moderate fine angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), few subrounded clasts of limestone (max. 4 cm) with surfaces altered by karst dissolution, common biological activity (burrows), common continuous clay coatings on pedfaces, gradual linear boundary to:
2Bt1b	75-98 cm, clay, dark reddish brown (5YR3/4), strong fine angular blocky structure, not calcareous, common very fine pores, firm (moist), common to many subrounded clasts of limestone (max. 4 cm) with surfaces altered by karst dissolution, common biological activity (burrows), few very fine Fe-Mn oxide nodules, gradual smooth boundary to:
2Bt2b	98-110 cm, clay, dark reddish brown-dark red (2.5YR3/4-6), strong medium angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common very fine pores, firm (moist), common to many subrounded clasts of limestone (max. 25 cm) with surfaces altered by karst dissolution, common biological activity (burrows), common very fine Fe-Mn oxide nodules, abrupt irregular boundary to: karstified bioclastic limestone.
Profile 2: IST_2 (40°31'46.167''N 20°43'19.528''E 1,040.8 m. a.s.l.) Profile facing south-west, in the central part of the flat area of the relief
horizon	description
A	0-2 cm, silt loam, dark brown (7.5YR3/3), moderate to strong very fine granular structure, not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), very few subrounded fine gravel of limestone, common biological activity (burrows), common medium and fine herbaceous roots, gradual linear boundary to:
2Btb	2-25 cm, clay loam, dark reddish brown (5YR3/4), moderate to strong very fine granular structure (primary) moderate fine angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common very fine pores, firm (moist), very few subrounded fine gravel of limestone, common biological activity (burrows), matrix infillings in pores (biogallery), few very fine Fe-Mn oxide nodule, abrupt irregular boundary to: karstified bioclastic limestone.
Profile 3: IST_3 (40°31'43,0''N 20°43'14.3''E 1,031.0 m. a.s.l.) Profile facing south-east, on the southern slope, in a gully erosion
A	0-1 cm, silt loam, brown (7.5YR4/4), moderate to strong very fine granular structure, not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), common biological activity (burrows), common medium and fine herbaceous roots, erosive boundary (stone line with common subrounded fine gravel of limestone) to:
2Bwb	1-17 cm, silt loam, dark brown (7.5YR3/3), moderate to strong very fine granular structure (primary) moderate fine angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common fine pores, friable (moist), common biological activity (burrows), common medium and fine herbaceous roots, gradual linear boundary to:
2Btb	17-55 cm, clay loam, dark reddish brown (5YR3/4), moderate to strong very fine granular structure (primary), moderate medium angular blocky structure (secondary), not calcareous, common very fine pores, firm (moist), very few subrounded fine gravel of limestone, common biological activity (burrows), matrix infillings in pores (biogallery), common distinct clay pedorelicts, clear boundary with the matrix, dark red (2.5YR3/6), few very fine Fe-Mn oxide nodules, abrupt irregular boundary to: karstified bioclastic limestone

Table 2. Micromorphological features observed throughout the IST_1 soil profile.

Thin section	Microstructure	Porosity	Coarse components	Fine material	Groundmass		Organic Components	Pedofeatures
Thin section	Microstructure	Porosity	Coarse components	Fine material	c/f related distribution pattern	b-fabric	Organic Components	Pedofeatures
MM2 (AB)	Complex, highly separated primary granular microstructure, weakly separated secondary subangular blocky microstructure, and highly developed vermicular microstructure	Accommodating or partially accomodating roughness curved planes (<2mm), intrapedal channel transpedal root channel (<2,5mm) biogalleries (<5mm)	Angular prolate grains of quartz, mainly policrystalline (15%), subangular microcrystalline chert (<1%), subangular vulcanic glass (<1%)	Reddish brown clay	c/f_{20 µm}15/85, open porphyric	Crystallitic	Fresh roots	Loose discontinuos and loose continuos microgranular infillings. Dense incomplete infillings of impure clay. Typic and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nodule
MM1 (Bw)	Complex, highly separated primary granular microstructure, weakly separated secondary subangular blocky microstructure, and highly developed tertiary vermicular microstructure	Accommodating or partially accomodating roughness curved planes (<2mm), transpedal root channel (<2,5mm) biogalleries (<5mm)	Angular prolate grains of quartz, mainly policrystalline (10%), subangular vulcanic glass <1%), amphiboles (<1%)	Yellowish red clay	c/f_{20 µm}10/90, open porphyric	Crystallitic	Monomorphic amorphous organic fine material (2%), fresh roots, charcoal (<1%)	Loose discontinuos and loose continuos microgranular infillings and coalescent ellipsoids excremets. Dense incomplete infillings of impure clay. Typic and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nodule
MM3 (2Bt1b)	Complex, highly separated subangular blocky microstructure with accomodating peds (2-5mm) and highly developed secondary vermicular microstructure	Accommodating or partially accomodating roughness curved interpedal planes (<500µm), transpedal root channel (<2,5mm) biogalleries (<5mm), chamber ((1 cm), intrapedal channel	Angular prolate grains of quartz, mainly policrystalline (10%), muscovite (<2%), subangular microcrystalline chert (<1%), subangular vulcanic glass <1%), amphiboles (<1%), biotite (<1%),	Reddish brown clay	c/f_{20 µm}10/90, open porphyric	Speckled, weakly grano and porostriated	Monomorphic amorphous organic fine material (<5%), fresh roots	Passage features with groundmass material, loose discontinuos and loose continuos microgranular infillings and coalescent ellipsoids excremets. Dense incomplete infillings of impure clay. Typic and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nodule
MM4 (2Bt2b)	Complex, highly separated subangular blocky microstructure with accomodating peds (>5mm) and highly developed secondary vermicular microstructure	Accommodating or partially accomodating roughness curved interpedal planes (<500µm), transpedal root channel (<2,5mm) biogalleries (<5mm), chamber ((1 cm), intrapedal channel	Angular prolate grains of quartz, mainly policrystalline (10%), subangular vulcanic glass <1%), amphiboles (<1%), muscovite (<2%)	Reddish clay	c/f_{20 µm}10/90, open porphyric	Speckled, weakly grano and porostriated	Monomorphic amorphous organic fine material (<5%)	Passage features with groundmass material, loose discontinuos and loose continuos microgranular infillings and coalescent ellipsoids excremets. Dense incomplete infillings of impure clay. Typic and nucleic anorthic impregnative iron (hydr)oxide nodule, orthic aggregate Mn-hydroxide nodule

Table 3. Resuming table of the main petrographic features of the raw materials exploited in the site. RR= big radiolarians; rr= small radiolarians; sp= small spicules; SP= big spicules; fbent= benthic forams; bcr= benthic crinoids; mol= molluscs; w= white; d= dark; pel= peloids; biocl= bioclasts.

*Raw material*	*(Mother) Rock Type*	*Color*	*Silicified matrix texture*	*Structures*	*Paeontological content.*	*Other*	*Diaclases*	*Depositional environment*	*Geological units*	*Cortex*
Ra1	Radiolarite	Grey green	microcrystalline		wrr	sulphides	no	Marine Basinal	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Ra2	Radiolarite	red	microcrystalline	Micro lamination	DRRrr	calcite	no	Marine Basinal	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Ra3	Radiolarite	Green and red	microcrystalline	Micro lamination	DRRrr	calcite	no	Marine Basinal	Ophiolite group	Fresh
Si1	Silcrete	Red to dark red	criptocrystalline	Voids, fissures		megaquartz	no	Subaerial Silified crust	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Si2	Silcrete	yellow	criptocrystalline	Voids, fissures		Zoned quartz, megaquartz	no	Subaerial Silified crust	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Si3	Silcrete	yellow	criptocrystalline	Voids, fissures		Chromite, megaquartz	no	Subaerial Silified crust	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Si4	Silcrete	Light grey	criptocrystalline	Voids, fissures		Lithoclasts, Chromite, megaquartz	no	Subaerial Silified crust	Ophiolite group	Pebble
Qu1	Quartzite	White	Micro to macrocrystalline	cleavage			yes	Metamorphic	Metamorphic basement	Pebble
Vo1	Trachyte	grey	-	fluidal		feldpars, biotite	no	Magmatic	Volcano-sedimentary	n.d
Ch1	Wack to packstone	Light to dark Grey	microcrystalline	Weack lamination	SP, pel, bcri, biocl, fbent		no	Marine, molasse	Korça basin, Cenozoic	Fresh and pebble
Ch2	Wack to packstone	Reddish grey	microcrystalline	lamination	SP, pel, bcri	Fe oxides	yes	Marine molasse	Korça basin, Cenozoic	Pebble
Ch3	Framestone	Grey to red	Micro to macrocrystalline	Fossil framework	Sponge scheleton	Calcite	yes	Marine Reef	Adria plate, Mesozoic	Pebble
Ch4	Packstone	black	microcrystalline	lamination	sp	Calcite, dolomite	no	Marine Intra-platform basin	Adria plate, Mesozoic	Paleosoil
Ch5	Packstone to grainstone	Yellow brown	microcrystalline		fbent, SP, bcri	Fe oxides	few	Marine External Platform/slope	Adria plate, Mesozoic	Pebble
Ch6	Wackestone	Light yellowish brown	criptocrystalline,		wrr	calcite	no	Marine Basinal	Adria plate, Mesozoic	Paleosoil

Table 4. Composition of the Istraishta lithic assemblage.

Main component	Artifact type	N	Tot
Discoid cores	Fully developed	16	114
	Partially developed	41
	With small peripheral detachments	11
	On flakes	10
	On flakes – with small periph. detachments	36
Surface cores	With not prepared platforms	15	25
	On flakes	3
	Levallois cores	7
	Sub-Prismatic cores		1
	Other cores		12
	Other cores on flake		12
	Core fragments		6
Discoid centripetal flakes	Non cortical	52	81
	Partially cortical	24
	Overpassing the apex	5
Discoid debordant flakes	Non cortical debordant	86	239
	Pseudo-Levallois points	48
	Debordant with cortical back	80
	Debordant with cortex	25
	Kombewa-type flakes		42
	Crested flakes		14
	Unidirectional flakes		10
	Levallois flakes		14
Retouched tools	Scrapers	15	21
	Notches	2
	Denticulated	1
	Marginal retouch	3
	Retouch flakes		2
Post-Pleistocene pieces			43
Cortical flakes and fragments			469
Non cortical flakes and fragments			362
Total			1467

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Discoid technology in between: The Middle Palaeolithic site of Istraishta in the Quaternary context of the Korça Basin, Albania

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

1.1. The Middle Palaeolithic settlements of Western Balkans: a biased scenario?

1.2. Discoid knapping on the edge

2. Presentation of Istraishta site in the Korça Basin

2.2. Discovery and research history at the site

3. The policyclic soil at Istraishta

3.1. Field description

3.2. Soil micromophology

3.2.1. Methodology

3.2.2. Results (table 2)

3.3.3. Interpretation

4. Lithic industry

4.1 Materials and methods

4.2 Lithic raw material sources in the Korça basin

1. Ra. Radiolarite groups

2. Si. Silcrete groups

3. Qu. Quartzite group

5. Ch. Chert groups

4.3 Discoid production and tool shaping

4.3.1. Discoid production

4.3.2. Tool shaping

4.4. Levallois flakes and cores

5. Discussion

5.1. Discoid assemblages in the Southern European scenario

5.2. A Quaternary frame for Istraishta

6. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Tables

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1