Bathymetric and Sediment Assessment for the Lukanga Swamps in Central Province, Zambia

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3811743/v1

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Bathymetric and Sediment Assessment for the Lukanga Swamps in Central Province, Zambia

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3811743/v1

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Globally, wetlands are under threats and Lukanga Swamp, a wetland of international significance and a Ramsar site, is one of them. The aim of the study was to carry out bathymetric and sediment assessment of the Lukanga Swamp so as to provide further insights into the gravity of sediment load and ascertaining the extent of degradation of the wetlands, and the threats to it. An Hydrographic Survey Boat (HSB) Sonar Model RC-S2 mounted with a Trimble Hemisphere OmniSTAR Virtual Base Station (VBS) for Differential Geographic Positioning System (DGPS) was used to measure water depths across the Swamp. Data on sediment depth was collected using sediment coring method with the aid of a Graduated Sediment Depth Rod (GraSEDD). In sections of the swamp where there were too many weeds, GraSEDD was also used to determine water depth data, instead of the HSB. Photography was also used to collect relevant qualitative data. Quantitative bathymetric and sediment data were analysed using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) in ArcMap 10.4 Environment. The swamp water and sediment depths ranged from 0.2m to 4.77m and 0.03m to 2.11m, respectively. The findings showed that at the time of survey, the water stored in the Swamp was about 2,918 Million Cubic Metres (MCM) and about 1,200 MCM of the Swamp’s capacity was lost to sedimentation. The study generally concludes that Lukanga Swamp has significantly lost the original storage capacity, a problem, which is recommended to Nature-based Solutions (NbS) so as to preserve the pristine of the natural habitat.

Ramsar site

Bathymetry

Sediment

Lukanga Swamps

Wetlands restoration

Wetlands currently cover about 4.7% of the African landmass. They are among the most productive natural ecosystems globally. They influence earth system’s functioning through supporting biodiversity, storing carbon, recharging groundwater and removing pollutants. However, wetlands ecosystems are under threat due to sedimentation (Mandishona and Knight, 2022). When sediment is eroded, transported and deposited into wetlands, they tend to undermine the quality and quantity of water, negatively impacting wetlands’ biodiversity. Sediment carry nutrients, such as phosphorus, nitrate and heavy metal pollutants into water bodies. As turbidity levels spike up due to sedimentation, they obstruct sunlight for aquatic plants and biodiversity of organism (WWF, 2021; Sichingabula, 2018). As the world reorients itself towards implementing the UN decade of ecosystem restoration (2021–2030) (UN, 2021), it is expedient to explore localised strategies that can best help restore degraded wetland ecosystems for sustainable biodiversity conservation and restoration. The study acknowledges the scantiness of scientific studies focusing on the bathymetric and sedimentation assessment of wetland across the world, however, some isolated studies still exist. For example, Wilcox & Huertos (2005) did a bathymetric assessment on the West Bear Creek unit of the San Luis National Wildlife Refuge in California. Although their study does not bring out the state of sedimentation, it demonstrates how intersessional bathymetric variations affects habitats for endangered crustacean species that depend on various wetlands’ basins. The assessment of the bathymetry of wetlands in the Great Lakes Region by Anderson et al. (2023) also showed a recession in coastal wetland inundation due to fluctuations in the rise of sea levels. Ang et al. (2021) also studied the dynamics in the depths of floodplains based on inundation frequency and field bathymetry survey data. Park et al. (2014) combined both modelled and bathymetric data for stage variation analysis of wetland. Huertos & Smith (2013) further document on how to implement wadable wetland bathymetry although this could only be useful to shallow wetlands. Haag et al. (2005) bathymetrically assessed the hydrologic and ecologic status of expansive coastal and riverine wetlands and, concluded that, such scientific data is critical for understanding the hydrological behaviour of wetlands as well as understanding the impacts of human activities on wetlands However, all these studies did not ascertain the state of sedimentation in terms of volumes which potentially contributed to bathymetric variations.

Since the mid-1980s, there are several studies that have been conducted on the Lukanga Swamps. Previous research in the Lukanga can generally be grouped into landcover analysis, hydrology, water quality and invasive species, and socio-economical aspects. Studies to understand the hydrology of the Lukanga Swamp have been conducted by Balek (1983), Mepham and Mepham (1987), Sharma (1988), who respectively made various estimations on the hydrology of the swamp in general and, particularly flow regimes and evapotranspiration trends. The swamp varies in extent depending on the flooding conditions, but the permanent swamp size is estimated around 2,600 km², with water depth ranging from 1.5 m to 6.1 m at the peak of the rainy season (McCartney, 2007). McCartney (2007) documents the sources of water in the swamp, which included direct rainfall, subsurface flow, inflow from tributaries that drain into the swamp such as the Lukanga River and others, and the overflow from the Kafue River during high flow conditions (McCartney 2007). Kachali’s (2007) documented stakeholder interactions with respect to the Swamp and how such interactions influenced exploitations of natural stocks in the catchment.

Chabwela et al. (2017) conducted a vast plant ecology study in the Swamp, whereas Mwanza et al. (2019a) also estimated the probable maximum flood boundary of the swamp using satellite imagery. Pekel et al. (2016) acknowledge the negative changes in the swamp water occurrence between 1984 and 2000, and they strongly attributed it to siltation. Hunink et al. (2017) also build up by providing further hydrological understanding of the hydrology of the wetland.

Hunink et al. (2017) reports that between 2000 and 2015, a mean annual total of 380, 000 tonnes of sediment entered the Lukanga Swamp. The study assumed a specific sediment particle weight of 1,237 kg/m³ to conclude that this corresponded to a volume of 310, 000 m³ that is subtracted from the swamp storage capacity each year due to sedimentation. This was considered to be minimal compared to 4,000–7,000 MCM of water stored in the swamp. Given the negligibility of the sediment input, Hunink et al. (2017) concluded that, at the current rate of sedimentation, even after 100 years, the swamp would lose only less than one percent of its capacity. However, these findings could not answer the question with regard to the quantity of sediment that accumulated in the swamp, and how much of the Swamp’s capacity has already been lost to siltation.

Given that the assessment was made under conditions of limited data, there is need for continued validation of the results and improvements of the methods used to gain further confidence in the simulated sediment loads. Changwe (2020) assessed the extent of landuse / landcover around the Lukanga Swamp for the period 1997 to 2017, part of whose results signalled a reduction in forest cover and wetland area, while land under agriculture and settlement increased. Changwe’s (2020) findings suggests that agriculture and increasing human population as well as settlement in the catchment could be posing a threat to the storage capacity of the Lukanga Swamp as it is the recipient of sediment from these activities. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (2021) widely documented the biophysical background of the Lukanga as well as the hydrology, but scarcely provides enough insights on the state of sediment that has settled on the bed of the swamp and its storage capacity. All of the reviewed studies about the Lukanga Swamps between 1983 and 2021 simply focus on other important biophysical aspects of the swamps. Even those that were closed heavily relied on simulated findings and or implied epistemic links to siltation premised on what they could observe. The actual state of the storage capacity of swamp and the state of sedimentation remained unaddressed its real sense, hence this study whose novelty lies in its revelation of actual storage capacity and siltation state of the swamps.

Sediment transport and sedimentation data are available in other parts of Zambia for reservoirs located in regions with physiographic and hydrological characteristics similar to the Lukanga Swamps region. Sichingabula (1997) brought to the fore the problem of sedimentation in Zambia and has reported sediment fluxes for rivers in the Lake Tanganyika basin, Kafue and Luangwa rivers (Sichingabula, 1996; 1998; 1999a; 1999b), and Kaleya River in Mazabuka district (Walling et al., 2001; Collins et al., 2003; Sichingabula et al., 2000). Sources of sedimentation data on reservoirs include, Chomba and Sichingabula, (2015) in Lusaka district, Mphande and Sichingabula (2019) in Mkushi district, Muchanga, (2017), Muchanga et al. (2019), Simweene and Muchanga, (2022) in Monze District, Hamatuli and Muchanga, (2021) in Central province, and Mwiinde (2017) in Choma District, Chisola et al. (2020) and Chisola et al. (2022) in the Kaleya Catchment, Singubi et. al. (2023) in the Lusitu, among others. These studies and many others show how much data is available on sediment transport and sedimentation in Zambia. However, no earlier studies ever attempted to specifically enhance understanding of the actual storage capacity of the swamp and the quantity of sediment that has settled on the swamp bed. This further justifies the current study.

2.1 Description of the study area

The catchment size of the Lukanga Swamps is about 14,000 km². The Swamp is located within the upper Kafue River Basinat 14°24'S, 027°38'E in central province of Zambia https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1580 (Fig. 1). The Swamp is shared by Ngabwe District in the north and Chibombo District in the south, with Kapiri Mposhi District bordering the Swamp in the east and northeast. Although Kabwe District no longer borders the Swamp, it provides one of the biggest markets for the fish from the Swamp, seconded by Luanshya district on the Copperbelt province. Many of the fishermen on the Swamp come through Makululu township in Kabwe. Hence, Kabwe still has a big influence on the Swamp. The main soil in the catchment are acrisols, cut by three major tributaries into the Swamp which include the Lukanga River, the Mufukushi and Lupoposhi streams. In addition to inflows from within its catchment area, the Swamp also receives overflow from the Kafue River. Hence, it can be seen as a natural side stream reservoir of the Kafue River. The major livelihood activities in the area are small scale and commercial cultivation, fishing in the swamps, livestock rearing, firewood trade and charcoal burning.

In terms of its socioeconomic background, Lukanga Swamp has about 30 wards that make up the Lukanga Catchment and whose total population was estimated at about 315, 748 (Central Statistical Office [CSO], 2010). However, taking the annual growth rate of 2.4% for the period 2010 to 2022, the population was approximated at 406,683 people spread across the wards in the four districts.

Majority of the local people are dependent on fishing and Lukanga Swamp is generally perceived as a ‘mine’ by the local which provides variety of fish through the year. Other prominent economic activities within the catchment include charcoal burning, agriculture, canoe boat making among others (Sichingabula et al., 2022).

2.2 Data collection and analysis

The study adopted a quasi-experimental design, which involved fieldwork and measurements, desktop review of related studies. Prior to the actual field experiments, a reconnaissance fieldwork was conducted from the 25th to the 29th of May 2022 to familiarise with the hydrology and geomorphology of the area. Physical observation was based on features such as flood marks, depositional features, divers of siltation and deforestation.

Bathymetric data was collected using bathymetric survey. In open waters, a Hydrographic Survey Boat (HSB) Sonar Model RC-S2 mounted with a Trimble Hemisphere OmniSTAR Virtual Base Station (VBS) for Differential Geographic Positioning System (DGPS) was used to measure water depths across the Swamp. This process was implemented with the aid of a banana boat powered by an outboard engine to traverse around the densely vegetated water surface area of the Lukanga Swamp. The XYZ (UTM coordinates and water depth) data was automatically saved into the csv back data file. In sections of the swamp where there were too many weeds, Graduated Sediment Depth Rod (GraSEDD) was also used to determine water depth data, with the aid of a handheld GPS, instead of using the HSB as the weeds would interfere with the Sonar signal.

XYZ Data (UTM coordinates and sediment depth) on accumulated sediment was collected using sediment coring method with the aid of a GraSEDD. This was done with the aid of a handheld Garmin-GPS and field observation sheets. Photography was also used to collect relevant qualitative data. The XYZ data was transferred, stored and managed using the Kobo Collect Toolbox. The volumes of water and sediment were analysed using the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation method and the area-volume tool in ArcGIS 10.4. Hydro-hypsometric curves were used to display the relationship between different variables of sediment and water and, to develop prediction regression statistical models. The bathymetric and sediment sampling points are presented in Fig. 2.

3.1 Water storage capacities

At the time of bathymetric survey (June 2022), the water stored in the Swamp was about 2,918 MCM (Table 1, Fig. 3). The mean water depth was 2.21 m as of June 2022, with a maximum depth of up to 4.77 m (Fig. 3 and Fig. 4). From the flood marks, the water depth was estimated to have reduced by about 1.5 m at the time of survey. This gives a maximum depth of about 6.27m at the Swamps full capacity. The deepest points were in open water areas spread in various parts of the Swamp and on the western and outlet side of the Swamp (Fig. 3) .

Table 1

Depth, Surface area and Volume of the Lukanga Swamps
Water Depth (m)	Water Surface Area (m²)	Water Volume (m³)
0.0	0.00	0.00
0.2	8977.47	278.77
0.4	76224.22	7252.80
0.6	350658.83	41456.21
0.8	1077947.77	145611.79
1.0	2989338.35	527869.23
1.2	5977755.23	1377247.41
1.4	16560631.35	3280028.42
1.6	34821162.73	8247485.95
1.8	57317810.78	17327554.36
2.0	99334441.10	32573192.64
2.2	198900472.83	61408621.33
2.4	339914427.29	114290758.80
2.6	558574812.35	202104688.26
2.8	841118851.49	343381202.14
3.0	1014683216.48	530549617.76
3.2	1102262013.95	743043508.34
3.4	1162677437.24	969751267.97
3.6	1217096589.95	1207714694.16
3.8	1272292053.38	1456580090.76
4.0	1330637973.78	1716780319.03
4.2	1399021323.94	1989375202.84
4.4	1480777540.65	2277316417.77
4.6	1590712955.87	2584029337.44
4.77	1,761,029,640.28	2,918,338,638.43

Based on the water depth and volume relationships derived from the bathymetric maps, we developed a model for quick estimation of water volume in the swamp based on water level or water depth data. The exponential power function gave the best results as it explained 99 percent of the variation in water volume in the Swamp (Fig. 4). Given that the Swamp has two water level monitoring stations at Twenty Village and Chilwa (Fig. 5), these can be revamped so that the water levels are then used to monitor the actual volumes in the Swamp. This has important applications for water allocation and for monitoring of water borne diseases in the swamp which tend to increase when Swamp water levels reduce. Based on the current study, the total volume of water in the Lukanga Swamp depression at its full capacity was estimated at 5,797 MCM.

3.2 Accumulated contemporary sediments

Meanwhile, the sediment depth in the Swamp was found to range from 0.03 m to a maximum of 2.11 m (Table 2) with analytical results portrayed in Fig. 6. The mean sediment depth was 0.93 m. Figure 6 shows that the estimated accumulated sediment is best described by the power exponential function which explained 98% of the variation in sediment. The total contemporary sediment was estimated at 1,200 MCM. This is a large volume of the Swamp’s storage capacity lost to siltation. This value is conservative given that the old hard sediment was most likely missed during sampling. However, the value gives an indication of the gravity of the recent siltation in the Swamp.

Given that during the time of sampling in mid (June 2022), the water volume was only at 2,900 MCM against the volume of 7,000 MCM at full capacity, the sediment volume of 1,200 MCM is high and of great concern with respect to the future of the Swamp. Figure 7 shows the distribution of accumulated contemporary sediment over the swamp area. The figure shows that major sites of high sediment accumulation are in the central southern and north-eastern parts of the Lukanga Swamps. These areas are considered as hotspots that require regular monitoring to institute sediment control measures in order to reduce swamp degradation.

Table 2

Contemporary Sediment depth-volume data of the Lukanga Swamp.
Sediment Depth (m)	Sediment Volume (m³)
0.0	0.00
0.2	38723.37
0.4	201475.92
0.6	1213926.99
0.8	8750528.91
1.0	56184152.40
1.2	181480624.63
1.4	381629100.30
1.6	619045944.78
1.8	886480706.84
2.11	1,201,121,982.50

The increased sediment and nutrient loads do not only contribute to reduced capacity of the Swamp, but also increasing the amount of weed cover over the Swamp. Much of the Swamp’s open water areas are reducing in extent due to floating islands (Fig. 8), locally known as Chitolo. This is associated with a mass of suspended sediment mixed with dead hydrophytes and microphytes reaching upto about 30 cm thick, upon which thick grass grows. This remains floating on the water and could grow in size to cover a huge area as new sediment and grass continue to get attached to it.

Notwithstanding that, the floating islands are however important for the fishermen as they provide platforms for fish camps on this vast Swamp that is without any high ground (apart from Chilwa Island). However, the number of floating islands need to be controlled to preserve the open water areas of the Swamp.

The storage capacity of the Lukanga Swamp has been estimated at about 7,398 MCM with minor variations among scholars (Mepham and Mepham 1987; McCartney 2007). At the time of survey, the water stored in the Swamp was about 2, 900 MCM based on bathymetry analysis. For the first time the bathymetric map for the Lukanga Swamps has been produced. This map will be useful as a baseline for future assessments of the impacts of siltation on the Swamp’s storage capacity. Muchanga (2020) argues that, Bathymetry can be useful in measuring siltation every after 5 to 10 years depending on the geomorphic characteristics of the catchment.

The contemporary sediment depth in the Swamp was found was quite substantial at 1,200 MCM in volumetric terms. And given that this value is conservative as earlier indicated, it signifies the gravity of the problem of sedimentation in the swamp. Compared to a combined total of over 7 MCM of sediment downstream of the Lusitu and Magoye river channels which are among the areas with the high erosion levels in Zambia, the silt in the swamp would still be about 171 times higher. This study developed the first ever sedipleth map of contemporary sediment distribution for the Lukanga Swamps, which could serve as baseline for monitoring deposition rates of future sediments.

This study complements the findings by Hunink et al., (2017), by providing an improved understanding of the bathymetric and the gravity of sedimentation. There is also room to synergise the findings from both studies to guide interventions for the management of the wetland and its catchment landscape.

Given the paucity of data on wetlands, for assessment of the accuracy of the water volume and sedimentation estimates obtained for the Lukanga, selected recent data on small and large reservoirs in Zambia and Zimbabwe have been compared with the Lukanga Swamp estimates (Table 3, Figs. 9–10). The plot of water depth against volume of water in Fig. 9 shows much higher volume measured for the Lukanga despite its water depth being in the same order of magnitude with depths of small reservoirs in the sub-region. The dry season volume would probably accord well with regional values of small reservoirs in Zambia. The Lukanga water depth is too shallow for its larger surface area most likely on account of it being a natural water body.

The difference of the Lukanga Swamp water depths could be attributed to the fact that the bed of the Lukanga Swamp as a natural system experiences more deposition on elevated bottom landscape than degradation, which is the reverse for the man-made reservoirs which were dugout during construction.

Table 3

Regional data for selected reservoirs in Zambia and Zimbabwe.
No.	Reservoir / Swamp name	Catchment Area (km²)	Water Depth (m)	Water Volume (m³)	Accumulated sediment (m³)	Source
1	Katondwe	2.2	3.0	1071.88	9937.1	Chomba & Sichingabula (2015)
2	Silverest	28.2	9.5	368333.14	379480.5	“
3	Morester	6.3	3.5	14724.32	13805.7	“
4	Lwiimba	11.8	4.0	101051.43	99644.6	“
5	Moffat	42.5	5.5	1180.46	223789.0	Mphande & Sichingabula (2019)
6	GRZ Weir	25.4	4.5	196849.00	53312.0	“
7	Makoye	67.0	2.54	75974.21	56648.1	Muchanga et al. (2019)
8	Chipapa	1.5	3.7	75750.01	104250.0	Mwiinde (2018)
9	Palabana	1.0	4.2	16163.81	7835.2	“
10	Choma	80.8	5.0	713954.41	506054.6	Sichingabula (2012)
11	Munzuma	442.9	14.0	3718780.21	1281219.8	“
12	Sianankanga	21.7	4.5	1111497.00	227239.5	“
13	Musokotwane	18.0	3.69	380264.80	78663.6	“
14	Mulabalaba	19.2	5.31	621737.16	111233.6	“
15	B Williams	61.6	6.40	106096.59	128907.0
16	Lukanga Swamps	14000.0	4.77	2905203193.00	1207531518.0	This study
17	Chisoba	177.7	14.24	6512600.00		Sichingabula et al (2022)
18	Kariba - Zambia-Zimbabwe	514892.0			39749662.0	Vanmaercke et al. (2014)
19	Jotsholo Weir - Zimbabwe	14860.0			1634600	Vanmaercke et al. (2014)

Additionally, the estimated sedimentation for the Lukanga Swamp has been compared with the accumulated sediment in small and large reservoirs in Zambia including two large reservoirs in Zimbabwe with catchment areas in the same order of magnitude (Table 3). Figure 10 generally shows a strong relationship (r² = 0.73) between catchment area and accumulated sediment. However, the plot for Lukanga Swamp shows as an outlier with over one billion accumulated sediment while the Lake Kariba with second highest sediment volume accords well with other reservoirs. The higher sediment accumulation on Lukanga Swamp could be attributed to slow movement of water in the Swamp compared to the man-made reservoirs with active in-flowing rivers whereas on Lukanga Swamp, there is no identifiable stream running through the swamp despite having the Lukanga as its inflow and outflow stream. The Lukanga River disappears in the swamp within 10 km distance after entering the swamp from the northern boundary. As such, sediment accumulation tends to be uniformly distributed with limited in-channel preferred sediment deposition and movement, showing that the deepest sediment accumulation is in the southeastern areas devoid of major inflow streams.

This study has provided empirical estimates on bathymetric and sediment assessment of the Lukanga Swamp. Previous studies on the Lukanga Swamp have been evaluated and verified with this study’s findings. The bathymetric and siltation status of Lukanga wetland have been established. Based on the findings of the study, it suffices to conclude that, Lukanga is highly silted up and this remains a major threat to the stability of storage capacity of Swamp and eventually to all goods and services offered by the swamps. Wider flood inundations with its associated consequences such as flooding of households, croplands, roads, among others is expected to become wider than the mapped inundation extent. Moreover, floating islands may also become more spatially distributed due to suspended sediment and may potentially cause more damage to the currently existing open water lakes. The study recommends incorporation of bathymetric and sedimentation assessment results into the overall protection and restoration framework for the Lukanga Swamps. Nature-based Solutions should be implemented so as to address threats in a natural way possible. This will ensure sustainability of ecosystem goods and services derived from the swamps for the benefit of many communities downstream of the swamps amidst threats of climate change.

Competing interests

Authors have declared no competing interests.

Source of Funding

The study was funded by World Wildlife Fund (WWF) - Zambia under Project No. 40001993-2021-CO2.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Manoah Muchanga, Henry Sichingabula and Moses Chisola. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Manoah Muchanga. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Beauty Mbale, Jani Rowen, Gershom Pule and Fungai Musana provided the final peer reviews and proof reading of the manuscript. Afterwards, all authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

We sincerely thank the research assistants in Lukanga Catchment during data collection

Data Availability

The data upon which the analysis was based will be made available on request and authorisation by the funder, World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

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Bathymetric and Sediment Assessment for the Lukanga Swamps in Central Province, Zambia

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the study area

2.2 Data collection and analysis

3. Results

3.1 Water storage capacities

3.2 Accumulated contemporary sediments

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Declarations

Competing interests

Source of Funding

Author Contributions

Acknowledgement

Data Availability

References

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