The Impact of Teaching Support on Teachers' Online Teaching Experience: The Mediating Role of Teachers' Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3814627/v1

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The Impact of Teaching Support on Teachers' Online Teaching Experience: The Mediating Role of Teachers' Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-3814627/v1

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Background:

The current evolution of technology and the pervasive access to the internet are catalyzing profound transformations in the field of education. While previous research in higher education has delved into how organizational resources impact teachers' teaching efficacy, there remains a dearth of studies investigating the influence of instructional support on teachers' experiences in online teaching.

Methods:

This study aimed to unravel the underlying mechanisms affecting teachers' online teaching experiences by leveraging survey data and employing structural equation modeling. Through this approach, the research sought to explore the relationships between technological acceptance, technological innovation awareness, and online teaching experience.

Results:

The findings revealed that technological acceptance significantly mediated the connection between teaching support and the online teaching experience. However, there was no significant mediating effect observed in technological innovation awareness. Notably, considering the standard total effect values, organizational factors emerged as pivotal determinants shaping the online teaching experience.

Conclusions:

This study contributes valuable insights into the complex interplay among teaching support, technological acceptance, and the online teaching experience. By offering empirical evidence, it sheds light on the factors influencing educators' experiences in online teaching, providing recommendations to enhance these experiences.

teaching support

technological acceptance

technological innovation awareness

online teaching experience

structural equation modeling

With the continuous advancement of technology and the widespread availability of the Internet, the field of education is undergoing unprecedented changes. In this digital age, online teaching by educators is emerging as a major trend and significant exploration in the realm of education. Online teaching by educators refers to the use of the internet and various digital tools, enabling teachers to interact with students through virtual platforms, impart knowledge, guide learning, and provide personalized educational support. In traditional teaching models, teachers and students are limited to face-to-face interactions in the classroom, with restricted access to learning resources, thus placing certain constraints on students' learning experiences and outcomes. Especially in the face of major public health events, online teaching has demonstrated significant advantages, and in the post-pandemic era, online teaching is expected to become one of the primary forms of instruction in educational institutions.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020 accelerated the rapid shift from conventional face-to-face education to online learning, affecting more than 90% of global higher education institutions^[^]. An increasing number of scholars have started to focus on teachers' online teaching experiences, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic^[^][^]. Teachers' online teaching experiences encompass various aspects of teaching in an online environment, including their skills in online teaching, the flexibility of their teaching work, the emotional aspects of online teaching, and the use of technological networks. These experiences are influenced by multiple factors, which cover various facets of the teaching process. Factors include the quality of technological equipment and networks, the extent to which online teaching tools are utilized, and even student participation and interaction. Among these factors, instructional support is considered one of the crucial elements influencing teachers' online teaching experiences. In the 1980s, American social psychologists, led by Eisenberger, introduced the concept of perceived organizational support (POS) and the Organizational Support Theory. When examining the nature of support, perceived organizational support encompasses not only emotional support but also tangible or instrumental support. Regarding the sources of support, perceived organizational support includes not only support from the organization but also support from leaders and colleagues. In terms of the content of support, perceived organizational support covers not only job-related support but also life-related support^[^]. In the field of higher education, relevant research has demonstrated that the more teaching support perceived by university teachers, the higher their sense of teaching efficacy. This leads to a greater willingness to invest more time, effort, and emotions in teaching activities, ultimately contributing to the improvement of teaching quality^[^].

While research in the context of higher education has examined the impact of organizational resources on teachers' teaching efficacy, there is limited research addressing the influence of instructional support on teachers' online teaching experiences. Therefore, this study aims to utilize survey data on the online teaching experiences of university teachers to uncover the mechanisms influencing these experiences. The goal is to provide empirical evidence and corresponding recommendations for enhancing teachers' online teaching experiences.

Research on Teaching Support

Teaching support is typically closely related to teachers' sense of teaching efficacy, and better teaching support is advantageous for enhancing teachers' teaching efficacy. Tschannen-Moran et al. developed the Teacher Efficacy Model in 1998^[^], drawing from Bandura's self-efficacy theory and previous research. They posited that teachers' efficacy beliefs were, in general, determined by their current environment. Encouragement and support for teachers are crucial, and teachers require relevant support and training to overcome periods of low efficacy caused by the use of new technologies. With the introduction of this model, numerous scholars have delved into what factors influence teachers' efficacy beliefs and how to enhance teachers' efficacy. One such factor is teaching support. Tschannen-Moran et al. (2002) categorized types of support into five groups: instructional resource support, administrative support, peer support, parental support, and teacher community support^[^]. Using linear regression models, Moran investigated which type of support has the most significant impact on teachers' efficacy beliefs. The results indicated that instructional resource support had the most substantial influence, while other types of support were relatively weaker. Herman et al. (2019) researched 13 high school science teachers who participated in informal support networks^[^]. Nine of these teachers believed that this type of support enhanced their sense of teaching responsibility and helped them overcome teaching obstacles. Chang et al. (2010) classified teaching support for university teachers in Taiwan, China, into three categories: instructional resource support, administrative support, and peer support. Through linear regression models, Chang found that instructional resource support and peer support had a significant impact on university teachers' sense of efficacy, while administrative support had no significant effect^[^]. In contrast, Han Jiying et al. (2018), based on data from university teachers in Shandong Province, China, argued that administrative support had a significantly negative impact on the efficacy of local and vocational college teachers but no impact on key college teachers^[^]. These studies demonstrate the importance of teaching support for teachers and highlight that providing teachers with basic teaching support can enhance their sense of teaching efficacy, ultimately leading to improved teaching outcomes and overall teaching efficiency.

Research on Online Teaching Experience and Influential Factors

In the mid-1990s, when online teaching was first introduced in higher education, most university teachers were reluctant to change their teaching methods and adopt online teaching^[^]. Many teachers lacked the skills to design and transition to online courses, making it a significant challenge to increase teacher engagement in distance education. With the widespread adoption of online teaching, more scholars began to explore teachers' experiences in online teaching. Lao and Gonzales (2005) surveyed American university teachers in 2005 to investigate their attitudes, perceptions, and experiences with online teaching^[^]. The results indicated that teachers' personal preferences, technological proficiency, and prior teaching experiences had a positive impact on their online teaching experiences. Conceição (2006) employed a phenomenological research approach to specifically study teachers' online teaching experiences. She found that, compared to traditional teaching experiences, teachers considered online teaching to be more intense in terms of workload, and feedback provided to teachers differed in content and manner^[^]. Shea et al. (2005) conducted a survey of 913 professors from community colleges, four-year colleges, and universities regarding their online teaching experiences^[4]. They discovered that the level of interaction between instructors and students in online courses, external technical support, positive learning experiences related to course development and teaching, and the subject area they taught were significantly correlated with their satisfaction with online teaching. De Gagne et al. (2009) used qualitative meta-synthesis (QMS) to investigate the experiences of American online educators^[5]. They identified four key themes related to teachers' online teaching experiences: workload, role changes, teaching strategies, and professional development. Satisfaction with online teaching is one of the important factors used to measure teachers' online teaching experiences. Bolliger et al. (2009) conducted a survey of 202 online teachers using the Online Faculty Satisfaction Survey^[^]. The study found that factors related to students, teachers, and institutions could influence teachers' satisfaction with online teaching. It particularly emphasized that high-quality interaction between teachers and students was a key factor affecting teachers' satisfaction with online teaching. After 2010, as online teaching technology continued to evolve, teachers' prior teaching experience became one of the primary factors influencing their online teaching experiences. Wingo et al. (2017), using the Technology Acceptance Model, combined empirical literature from 1995 to 2015 in 67 articles related to teachers' online teaching experiences, suggesting that experienced teachers were generally more satisfied with online teaching^[^]. Due to the flexibility of the online teaching environment, home factors have also been included in the influential factors of teachers' online teaching experiences by some scholars. Nicklin et al. (2016) found through a study of 138 online educators that the level of work-family conflict could impact online teaching experiences, with reduced conflict favoring improved online teaching experiences^[^].

Research on the Impact of Teaching Support on Teachers' Online Teaching Experience

Some scholars, based on Garrison and Vaughn's Community of Inquiry theory, argue that technology can make online teaching both easy and challenging. The reason lies in teachers' lack of technological proficiency. They call for relevant authorities to provide professional development programs for online teachers rather than focusing solely on the technology of online teaching^[^]. Stickney et al. (2019) surveyed 171 teachers from various online teaching institutions^[^]. Although the results found a weak relationship between institutional support and teachers' satisfaction with online teaching, they still believed that organizational policies and efforts aimed at online teaching could further enhance teachers' satisfaction with online teaching. After the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the world entered a state of emergency, and most higher education institutions were forced into the era of online teaching. Scholars in some countries began to explore what kinds of support could enhance teachers' online teaching experiences. Some scholars evaluating the online teaching experience of university staff during the COVID-19 pandemic found that technical issues were the most common problem. They suggested that relevant institutions should strengthen technical support for teaching staff, which could significantly improve teachers' acceptance of online teaching^[^]. Other empirical studies from different countries have also shown that technology support could help teachers transition to online teaching during the pandemic and enhance their overall experience^[^][^]. Research from Bangladesh indicates that administrative leadership support can also improve university teachers' adaptability and satisfaction with online teaching during the pandemic^[^]. Furthermore, Du et al. (2023) used the Technology Acceptance Model to investigate Chinese university teachers' online teaching experiences during the pandemic^[^]. The results showed that if teachers receive reliable teaching and technical support, they can improve their online teaching performance and ensure the quality of online teaching.

Based on the literature on teaching support and online teaching experience, this study aimed to investigate the impact of teaching support on online teaching experience by Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance as key intermediary factors, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The study hypothesized direct effects of Teaching support (including Social factors and Organizational factors) on Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance, direct effects of Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance on Online teaching experience, as well as indirect effect of Teaching support on Online teaching experience mediated by Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance. The research questions that guided the design of the study are as follows:

RQ1: What are the direct effects of Teaching support (including Social factors and Organizational factors) on Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance in online courses?

RQ2: What are the direct effects of Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance on Online teaching experience in online courses?

RQ3: Is the relationship between Teaching support and Online teaching experience mediated by Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance?

Participants and procedures

The study was part of a large-scale research project on teacher’s teaching work in China, through which we collected online questionnaire survey data from 3154 Chinese university teachers^[²⁴^]. To enhance the representativeness, this study adopts stratified sampling. We divided Chinese universities into three regions, the east, the middle, and western regions, and conducted stratified sampling according to five types: world-class university, world-class discipline, local university, local college, and higher vocational college. In this study, five types of colleges and universities covering the eastern, central, and western regions of China were selected and distributed through the academic affairs office of colleges and universities.

The data collection period for this study was from July 6th to 31st, 2020. During this time, the spring semester had mostly concluded in most universities. Teachers in most regions had completed their entire semester of online teaching practice and had gained a relatively comprehensive understanding of online technologies and course resources. Additionally, as the semester was nearing its end, teachers were relatively relaxed and had a more objective and calm perception of the advantages and disadvantages of online technologies and course resources. A total of 3,154 teachers filled in the questionnaire and 3,008 valid questionnaires were collected, resulting in an effective response rate of 95.37%.

Of this sample, there were 1815 females and 1193 males: 124 were teaching assistants or others, 1204 were lecturers, 1163 were associate professors, and 517 were professors. In terms of teaching experience, the distribution was as follows: 12.03% had taught for 0–3 years, 11.34% for 4–7 years, 29.85% for 8–15 years, 23.40% for 16–23 years, and 23.37% for over 24 years. In terms of geographical distribution within the overall sample, teachers from the eastern, central, and western regions of China accounted for 24.34%, 55.39%, and 20.28% respectively. Among them, teachers from local universities comprised the largest proportion, accounting for 34.91%, followed by teachers from world-class universities (24.40%), teachers from universities involved world-class discipline (14.43%), teachers from local colleges (13.80%), and teachers from vocational colleges (12.47%).

Measures

The descriptive statistics, relevant Cronbach's alpha reliability scores, and correlation coefficients of the measures are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Descriptive statistics, Cronbach's alpha reliability scores, and correlation coefficients of measures.
Measures	Items	Reference	Cronbach’s α	KMO
Technological Innovation Awareness	3	Agarwal et al., 1998^[²⁵^]; Lewis et al., 2003^[²⁶^]; Thompson et al., 2006^[²⁷^]; Gu et al., 2013^[²⁸^].	0.80	0.70
Technological Acceptance	7	Triandis,1977^[²⁹^]; Thompson et al., 1991^[³⁰^]; Venkatesh et al., 2000^[³¹^]; Rogers, 2003^[³²^].	0.90	0.86
Online teaching experience	8	Gay, 2016^[³³^].	0.82	0.84
Social factors	4	Carbonell et al., 2013^[³⁴^]; Warshaw, 1980^[³⁵^]; Hartwick et al., 1994^[³⁶^]; Venkatesh & Davis, 2000^[31].	0.90	0.80
Organizational factors	9	Garrison & Kanuka,2004^[³⁷^]; Niemiec et al., 2009^[³⁸^]; Graham et al., 2013^[³⁹^]; Powell, 2011^[⁴⁰^]; Carbonell et al., 2013^[34].	0.94	0.91

Technological Innovation Awareness refers to the extent to which teachers innovatively apply new technologies in their teaching practices. This innovativeness refers to the willingness of individuals to try out any new information technology^[⁴¹^]. Furthermore, empirical research has found a significant positive correlation between this innovativeness and active technology use^{[26] [27]}. Additionally, the innovative awareness of teachers in utilizing new technologies also influences their ability to leverage the functionalities of information technology in classroom teaching^[28].

Technological Acceptance refers to the basic conditions in which teachers perceive technology as valuable, and easy to use, and apply it in their teaching practices. The Technology Acceptance Model^[31], the Model of PC Utilization^{[29] [30]}, and the Diffusion of Innovation Theory^[32] all address the ease of use and value of technology, which impact teachers' acceptance and perceived efficacy of technology.

Online teaching experience refers to teachers' experiences of conducting online teaching during the spring semester of 2020. It encompasses the experiences of using and integrating online technologies into the teaching process. Specifically, it includes experiences related to the improvement of teaching skills, increased autonomy in teaching work, time-saving, assistance in academic research, feelings of isolation, changes in teacher-student interaction, teaching quality, and the use of technological platforms and networks^[33].

Social factors can be divided into colleague influence and leadership influence. The former refers to the influence of colleagues' communication and blended teaching practices on teachers, while the latter refers to the importance and support provided by school departments and leaders for teachers engaged in blended teaching.

Organizational factors draw on the blended learning adoption theory by Graham et al. (2013)^[39] and analyze the policies related to blended teaching in some Chinese universities. They can be decomposed into organizational strategy, institutional incentives, and institutional support. This includes the clarity of the school's organizational strategy and action guidelines for blended teaching, the recognition of additional workload, funding, and teaching assistant support provided by the school for teachers engaged in blended teaching, and the basic support provided by the school, including information infrastructure and technology and teaching training.

Data analysis

Structural equation modeling

To address RQ1 and RQ2, we employed Amos 24 ^[⁴²^] for conducting structural equation modeling (SEM). The standardized beta coefficients (β) were utilized to demonstrate the relative strength of each explanatory variable, taking into account the control of all other explanatory variables in the model^[⁴³^]. The goodness of fit of the SEM was assessed using the χ² (df), CFI, TLI, and RMSEA criteria, as previously described ^[⁴⁴^].

Mediation analysis

To address RQ3, a mediation analysis was conducted using Amos 24. In the analysis, the dependent variables (DVs) were Online teaching experience, while the independent variables (IVs) were Social factors and Organizational factors. The mediator variable comprised Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance.

Structural equation modeling

We employed SEM to test our hypothesis regarding the direct effects of Social factors and Organizational factors on Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance, as well as the direct effect of Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance on Online teaching experience, as shown in Fig. 2. The indices indicated that the hypothesized structural model fitted the data well (x²/df = 6.42; CFI > 0.99; RMSEA < 0.05).

A solid line indicates a positive relationship, while a dotted line indicates a negative relationship. *p < .10, **p < .05, ***p < .01.

Regarding RQ1, we found that Social factors and Organizational factors had significant positive effects on Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance directly. Specifically, Social factors had a positive impact on Technological Innovation Awareness (β = 0.10) and Technological Acceptance (β = 0.24), indicating that the more that the teachers were aware of the support from leaders and colleagues in the online course, the more they were willing to try new information techniques in teaching practice. In addition, the Organizational factors positively affected teachers’ Technological Innovation Awareness (β = 0.27), Technological Acceptance (β = 0.24), and Online teaching experience (β = 0.36) directly, implying that greater financial support and enhanced institutional safeguards are conducive to fostering teachers' awareness of technological innovation, acceptance, and their online teaching experiences.

With regards to RQ2 on the direct effect of Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance on the Online teaching experience, the results showed that Technological Acceptance positively affected the Online teaching experience (β = 0.25). However, Technological Innovation Awareness had no significant effect on Online teaching experience. These findings suggest that teachers who had higher technological acceptance were more likely to actively participate in online courses and demonstrate better teaching performance. However, technological awareness did not act as a mediator in this relationship.

Mediation analysis

Mediation analysis was conducted to address RQ3, focusing on the mediating roles of Technological innovation awareness and Technological acceptance in the relationship between Teaching support (comprising Social factors and Organizational factors) and the Online teaching experience. The results indicated that only Technological acceptance significantly mediated the relationship between Teaching support and the Online teaching experience, while Technological innovation awareness did not exhibit a significant mediating effect. These findings suggest that Technological Acceptance partially mediates the connection between Teaching support and the Online teaching experience, underscoring its value in facilitating the translation of social and organizational support into high-quality participation and experience within the online learning environment. Furthermore, when considering the standard total effect values, the impact of each dimension on the learning effect ranged from strong to weak as follows: Organizational factors (estimate = 0.416), Technological acceptance (estimate = 0.250), and Social factors (estimate = 0.062). This implies that Organizational factors play a pivotal role in shaping the Online teaching experience. The results of the mediation analysis for the Online teaching experience are reported in Table 2, detailing the Total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect.

Table 2

Results of mediation analysis for Online teaching experience: Total effect, direct effect, and indirect effect
IV DV		Social factors	Organizational factors	Technological Acceptance
Standardized Direct Effects	Technological Innovation Awareness	0.097	0.271	—
	Technological Acceptance	0.247	0.237	—
	Online teaching experience	—	0.357	0.25
Standardized Indirect Effects	Online teaching experience	0.062	0.059	—
Standardized Total Effects	Technological Innovation Awareness	0.097	0.271	—
	Technological Acceptance	0.247	0.237	—
	Online teaching experience	0.062	0.416	0.250

The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of teaching support on the online teaching experience by incorporating Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance as essential teacher characteristics in large-scale surveys to investigate the teaching experience that abruptly shifted online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on teaching support and experience literature, we proposed a conceptual model and hypothesized that teaching support had direct effects on online teaching experience and that Technological Acceptance mediated the relationship between teaching support and online teaching experience. The results supported the model and emphasized the mediating role of Technological Acceptance in the relationship between teaching support on actual teaching experience in online learning environments. These findings contribute to our understanding of the influence of teaching support on teachers' actual online teaching experience and have significant implications for effectively promoting teachers' engagement in online teaching.

The relationship between the teaching support and online teaching experience

There has been some discussion in previous research regarding the relationship between teaching support and the online teaching experience. Firstly, the majority of studies have indicated that teaching support plays a crucial role in mitigating obstacles in online teaching. These obstacles encompass various aspects, including unclear performance standards ^[^][^], excessive additional workload, and numerous training requirements ^[^][^]. At the same time, teaching support typically means that the institution provides external support ^[^][^], including to some extent improving incentive measures and eliminating threats to job security ^[^].

Furthermore, existing research lacks a systematic examination of how teaching support impacts the teaching experience. For instance, McGee et al. (2007) focused on identifying which teaching supports could enhance teachers' online teaching skills using the Delphi method ^[^]. They identified three major areas of value: training, external support, and prolonged experience. However, they did not further validate the impact of these teaching supports on teachers' online teaching experiences.

Lastly, substantial teaching support can effectively enhance teachers' online teaching experiences. From a social perspective, colleagues' practical experiences and feedback in using online teaching affect teachers' online teaching experiences. Support for in-school teaching from school leaders increases the likelihood of teachers using online teaching. From an organizational perspective, whether the school encourages, supports, and safeguards teachers' use of online teaching influences their online teaching experiences. In some Chinese educational cases, certain universities have developed digital teaching development strategies, explicitly requiring teachers to utilize information technology in their teaching. Especially during the pandemic, conducting online teaching became a mandatory choice for both schools and teachers. Teachers may engage in online teaching voluntarily or involuntarily. In this context, the institutional incentives and safeguards implemented by the school administration significantly affect teachers' online teaching experiences.

The mediating role of teachers' technological innovation awareness and technological acceptance

As an external condition for teachers' engagement in online teaching, teaching support can influence teachers' innovative awareness and technological acceptance of using new technology. Specifically, teacher technological acceptance plays a significant mediating role in the relationship between teaching support and teachers' online teaching experiences, whereas technological innovation awareness does not exhibit a significant mediating effect. Given the critical importance of individual willingness to use new technology for the success of online teaching, when teachers can perceive the teaching support provided by the school, they are inclined to experiment with new technology. This study aligns with Davis's proposed Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), utilized to assess teachers' psychological states regarding their willingness to use specific technology ^[^]. Within this model, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the technology, as well as the value it brings, impact whether teachers engage in online teaching and subsequently influence their online teaching experiences. The findings of this research demonstrate that colleagues' online teaching practices, leadership's online teaching support, and the school's support and safeguard measures all influence technological acceptance. When teachers perceive that they can easily and efficiently utilize online teaching technology, the quality of their online teaching experiences improves. Therefore, technological acceptance serves as a crucial mediating factor in the relationship between teaching support and online teaching experiences.

Implications for educational practices for engaging teachers in online learning

Enhancing teacher engagement in online learning is a pivotal component of contemporary education, particularly given the growing utilization of online and blended learning approaches. For educators to proficiently instruct online, they must inherently be active and enthusiastic learners. This study found that if teachers received limited instructional support for using online teaching technology, their innovative awareness of using new technology was insufficient, and their technology acceptance and self-efficacy were not high, resulting in an unsatisfactory online teaching experience. Therefore, efforts are needed to promote teacher engagement in online teaching in the following ways.

Firstly, it is essential to provide instructional support to teachers for effective online teaching. This research underscored the significant impact of instructional support from colleagues and leaders on teachers' online teaching experiences. Universities should actively promote collaboration among teachers to facilitate the sharing of online teaching resources, experiences, and best practices. Additionally, school leaders can play a pivotal role in fostering an online teaching community, allowing educators to engage in discussions, exchange ideas, and collectively address challenges encountered during online teaching. At the organizational level, universities should prioritize the provision of regular and tailored professional development opportunities in online teaching for teachers with varying levels of expertise. Furthermore, the establishment of a dedicated online teaching support team is paramount. This team should offer real-time assistance to teachers, helping them overcome technical, pedagogical, and online course design challenges, ultimately enhancing their online teaching experiences.

Secondly, it is imperative to enhance teachers' innovation awareness in using new technologies. Online teaching continually introduces new instructional technologies and tools. Therefore, educators should remain vigilant about the latest trends in the online teaching domain. They can achieve this by engaging in self-directed learning through various channels such as online courses and participation in seminars focused on emerging online teaching technologies. Such independent learning fosters teachers' confidence and innovation capabilities in online teaching. Universities should encourage teachers to continuously explore novel online teaching technologies, offering them professional development opportunities and regular updates on the latest online teaching technologies. Simultaneously, universities should provide technical support, teaching materials, and learning resources for online teaching, motivating teachers to actively embrace new technologies.

Thirdly, it is crucial to enhance teachers’ technological acceptance. This study underscored that both social and organizational factors significantly influence teachers’ technological acceptance. Elevating these aspects is pivotal for improving teachers' online teaching experiences. Therefore, universities should provide ample online teaching resources and technical training to assist teachers in staying informed about the latest online technology trends and best practices. This will enhance their capacity to effectively utilize online teaching technologies. Universities should also continuously refine and upgrade online teaching technologies to improve user-friendliness and accessibility. This will foster a teaching culture that encourages educators to experiment with new technologies in online teaching. Furthermore, showcasing successful cases of technology integration in teaching, alongside sharing inspiring information with teachers, can elevate their online teaching experiences.

Enhancing teachers' online teaching experiences has become a prominent topic in higher education research. This study employed data from a survey of teachers' online teaching experiences to analyze the impact of instructional support on these experiences. The study also validated the mediating roles of teachers' innovative awareness of new technologies and their technology acceptance in the relationship between teaching support and online teaching experiences.

However, this study has several limitations. Firstly, the factors influencing teachers' online teaching experiences are complex and multifaceted, including the nested effects of school types, regional characteristics, and individual factors. Exploring these influencing factors using multilevel linear models requires further investigation. Secondly, this research is limited to the Chinese context, and a more in-depth analysis is needed concerning the environmental factors and individual willingness to use online teaching that Chinese teachers may encounter. Lastly, this study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may limit the generalizability of the conclusions.

To address the aforementioned limitations, future research can take the following two approaches: (1) Cross-cultural and Cross-temporal Studies: Conduct research that spans different cultural backgrounds and timeframes to analyze teachers' experiences and performance in using online teaching under various cultural and societal conditions. This comparative approach will shed light on how cultural and temporal factors influence online teaching experiences. (2) Mixed-Methods Research: Employ a mixed-methods research design that combines the analysis of large-scale survey data with qualitative research methods such as case studies, ethnography, and phenomenology. This mixed-methods approach will provide a deeper understanding of the pathways and intricate factors influencing teachers' online teaching experiences. By exploring these avenues, future research can contribute to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics surrounding teachers' online teaching experiences, transcending cultural boundaries and providing deeper insights into the underlying factors.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The research solely constitutes a questionnaire survey and does not encompass human clinical trials or animal experiments. No images or any other personal or clinical specifics of the participants have been disclosed. All confidential and anonymous information gathered was obtained through the participants' completion of the questionnaire. Our procedures adhered strictly to the pertinent guidelines and regulations outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval for this study was granted by the Institutional Review Board of the School of International Education, Shandong University. Prior informed consent was acquired from all participants. Right from the outset, all data was anonymized to ensure the complete protection of individual participants' identities.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Availability of data and materials

The corresponding author can provide the datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study upon reasonable request.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific funding from public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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No competing interests reported.

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The Impact of Teaching Support on Teachers' Online Teaching Experience: The Mediating Role of Teachers' Technological Innovation Awareness and Technological Acceptance

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