3.1 Comparisons of emotions and embodiment before and after viewing natural scenarios in VR
SPSS statistical software package was used to conduct all the statistical analyses presented. Table 1 presents the chi-square values, degree of freedom (df) scores and Friedman Test for comparing the differences between pretest and post-test trials. As shown in Table 1, there were significant differences before and after viewing natural scenes in most aspects of emotion reflected in the Profile of mood state Scale: anger (chi-square = 23.992, p < 0.001), confusion (chi-square = 23.709, p < 0.001), depression (chi-square = 26.690, p < 0.001), fatigue (chi-square = 38.453, p < 0.001), tension (chi-square = 19.640, p = 0.001), and total mood disturbance (chi-square = 31.795, p < 0.001). There was no significant difference in vigour (chi-square = 3.462, p = 0.484). For the experience of embodiment, there was a significant difference in body unencumbered adjustment (chi-square = 10.801, p = 0.029), which indicates there were significant differences before and after viewing natural scenes in most aspects of emotion reflected in the Profile of mood state Scale. However, no significant differences were found in other aspects of embodiment: PBCC (chi-square = 7.174, p = 0.127), AF (chi-square = 4.822, p = 0.306), EESD (chi-square = 2.697, p = 0.610), ASC (chi-square = 3.601, p = 0.463), and RO (chi-square = 2.884, p = 0.577).
3.2 Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different natural scenarios
The study used two natural sceneries, forest and marine, to compare the differences in emotions and embodiment under the same degree of controllability. Table 2 presents the z-score and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for comparing the differences in viewing scenes of forest and marine while the subjects were seated. For the experience of embodiment, there was a significant difference in BUA (z=-2.817, p = 0.005). For emotions, there were no significant differences in all aspects: anger (z=-0.848, p = 0.396), confusion (z=-0.780, p = 0.435), depression (z=-0.810, p = 0.418), fatigue (z=-1.317, p = 0.188), tension (z=-1.029, p = 0.304), vigour (z=-1.227, p = 0.220), and total mood disturbance (z=-1.689, p = 0.091). There were no significant differences in other aspects: PBCC (z=-0.785, p = 0.432), AF (z=-0.512, p = 0.609), EESD (z=-1.352, p = 0.176), ASC (z=-1.310, p = 0.190), and RO (z=-0.956, p = 0.339).
Table 3 presents the z-score and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for comparing the differences in viewing scenes of forest and marine while the subjects were allowed to move freely. For emotions, there were no differences in all aspects: anger (z=-0.131, p = 0.896), confusion (z=-0.570, p = 0.568), depression (z=-1.614, p = 0.106), fatigue (z=-0.467, p = 0.640), tension (z=-0.027, p = 0.978), vigour (z=-1.266, p = 0.206), and total mood disturbance (z=-1.093, p = 0.274). For the experience of embodiment, there were no differences in all aspects: PBCC (z=-1.004, p = 0.315), BUA (z=-0.835, p = 0.404), AF (z=-0.581, p = 0.562), EESD (z=-0.359, p = 0.720), ASC (z=-0.031, p = 0.975), and RO (z=-1.305, p = 0.192).
Table 1
Comparisons of emotions and embodiment before and after viewing natural scenarios in VR
| POMS | | EES |
| A | C | D | F | T | V | TMD | | PBCC | BUA | AF | EESD | ASC | RO |
N | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 | 31 |
Chi-square | 23.992 | 23.709 | 26.690 | 38.453 | 19.640 | 3.462 | 31.795 | | 7.174 | 10.801 | 4.822 | 2.697 | 3.601 | 2.884 |
df | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
p | < 0.001*** | < 0.001*** | < 0.001*** | < 0.001*** | 0.001** | 0.484 | < 0.001*** | | 0.127 | 0.029* | 0.306 | 0.610 | 0.463 | 0.577 |
POMS, Profile of mood state scale; EES, Experience of embodiment scale; A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance; PBCC, Positive body connection and comfort; BUA, Body unencumbered adjustment; AF, Agency and functionality; EESD, Experience and expression of sexual desire; ASC, Attuned self-care; RO, Resisting objectification.
Table 2
Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different natural scenarios while being seated
| POMS | | EES |
| A | C | D | F | T | V | TMD | | PBCC | BUA | AF | EESD | ASC | RO |
Z | -0.848 | -0.780 | -0.810 | -1.317 | -1.029 | -1.227 | -1.689 | | -0.785 | -2.817 | -0.512 | -1.352 | -1.310 | -0.956 |
p | 0.396 | 0.435 | 0.418 | 0.188 | 0.304 | 0.220 | 0.091 | | 0.432 | 0.005** | 0.609 | 0.176 | 0.190 | 0.339 |
POMS, Profile of mood state scale; EES, Experience of embodiment scale; A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance; PBCC, Positive body connection and comfort; BUA, Body unencumbered adjustment; AF, Agency and functionality; EESD, Experience and expression of sexual desire; ASC, Attuned self-care; RO, Resisting objectification.
Table 3
Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different natural scenarios while standing
| POMS | | EES |
| A | C | D | F | T | V | TMD | | PBCC | BUA | AF | EESD | ASC | RO |
Z | -0.131 | -0.570 | -1.614 | -0.467 | -0.027 | -1.266 | -1.093 | | -0.583 | -0.228 | -1.605 | -0.498 | -0.752 | -1.559 |
p | 0.896 | 0.568 | 0.106 | 0.640 | 0.978 | 0.206 | 0.274 | | 0.560 | 0.819 | 0.108 | 0.619 | 0.452 | 0.119 |
POMS, Profile of mood state scale; EES, Experience of embodiment scale; A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance; PBCC, Positive body connection and comfort; BUA, Body unencumbered adjustment; AF, Agency and functionality; EESD, Experience and expression of sexual desire; ASC, Attuned self-care; RO, Resisting objectification.
3.3 Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different levels of controllability
Sitting or freely moving represents lower or higher-level controllability in the study. Table 4 presents the z-score, and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for comparing the differences in viewing the forest scenes while sitting and freely moving. For emotions, there were no significant differences in all aspects: anger (z=-0.909, p = 0.363), confusion (z=-0.837, p = 0.402), depression (z=-0.604, p = 0.546), fatigue (z=-1.685, p = 0.096), tension (z=-1.271, p = 0.204), vigour (z=-0.230, p = 0.818), and total mood disturbance (z=-1.648, p = 0.099). For the experience of embodiment, a significant difference was detected in BUA (z=-2.771, p = 0.006). There were no differences in other aspects: PBCC (z=-1.105, p = 0.269), AF (z=-1.620, p = 0.105), EESD (z=-1.430, p = 0.153), ASC (z=-1.793, p = 0.073), and RO (z=-0.981, p = 0.327).
Table 5 presents the z-score and the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for comparing the differences in viewing the marine scenes while sitting and free moving. For emotions, there were no significant differences in all aspects: anger (z=-0.546, p = 0.585), confusion (z=-0.461, p = 0.645), depression (z=-0.132, p = 0.895), fatigue (z=-1.103, p = 0.311), tension (z=-0.081, p = 0.935), vigour (z=-1.153, p = 0.249), and total mood disturbance (z=-0.402, p = 0.688). For the experience of embodiment, there was also no significant difference in all aspects: PBCC (z=-1.004, p = 0.315), BUA (z=-0.835, p = 0.404), AF (z=-0.581, p = 0.562), EESD (z=-0.359, p = 0.720), ASC (z=-0.031, p = 0.975), and RO (z=-1.305, p = 0.192).
Table 4
Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different controllability in forest scenery
| POMS | | EES |
| A | C | D | F | T | V | TMD | | PBCC | BUA | AF | EESD | ASC | RO |
Z | -0.909 | -0.837 | -0.604 | -1.685 | -1.271 | -0.230 | -1.648 | | -1.105 | -2.771 | -1.620 | -1.430 | -1.793 | -0.981 |
p | 0.363 | 0.402 | 0.546 | 0.096 | 0.204 | 0.818 | 0.099 | | 0.269 | 0.006** | 0.105 | 0.153 | 0.073 | 0.327 |
POMS, Profile of mood state scale; EES, Experience of embodiment scale; A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance; PBCC, Positive body connection and comfort; BUA, Body unencumbered adjustment; AF, Agency and functionality; EESD, Experience and expression of sexual desire; ASC, Attuned self-care; RO, Resisting objectification.
Table 5
Comparisons of emotions and embodiment under different controllability in marine scenery
| POMS | | EES |
| A | C | D | F | T | V | TMD | | PBCC | BUA | AF | EESD | ASC | RO |
Z | -0.546 | -0.461 | -0.132 | -1.013 | -0.081 | -1.153 | -0.402 | | -1.004 | -0.835 | -0.581 | -0.359 | -0.031 | -1.305 |
p | 0.585 | 0.645 | 0.895 | 0.311 | 0.935 | 0.249 | 0.688 | | 0.315 | 0.404 | 0.562 | 0.720 | 0.975 | 0.192 |
POMS, Profile of mood state scale; EES, Experience of embodiment scale; A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance; PBCC, Positive body connection and comfort; BUA, Body unencumbered adjustment; AF, Agency and functionality; EESD, Experience and expression of sexual desire; ASC, Attuned self-care; RO, Resisting objectification.
3.4 Comparisons of differences in emotions among two groups with different familiarity
Mann-Whitney U Test was used to compare the differences between those more familiar with forest sceneries and marine sceneries respectively. Table 6 presents the U-value and z-score for the comparisons. For the pretest, there was a significant difference in tension (U = 20.000, z=-2.421, p = 0.015) and total mood disturbance (U = 28.000, z=-1.988, p = 0.047). There were no significant differences in all other aspects in the pretest and all four subsets in the posttest.
Table 6
Difference of scores among groups with different familiarities
| | Mann-Whitney U | Z | p |
Pre-test | A | 35.500 | -1.588 | 0.112 |
C | 33.000 | -1.723 | 0.085 |
D | 34.000 | -1.667 | 0.095 |
F | 40.000 | -1.347 | 0.178 |
T | 20.000 | -2.421 | 0.015* |
V | 25.500 | -1.051 | 0.293 |
TMD | 28.000 | -1.988 | 0.047* |
Post-test (Forest, sitting) | A | 45.000 | -1.089 | 0.276 |
C | 46.000 | -1.023 | 0.306 |
D | 48.500 | -0.895 | 0.371 |
F | 54.000 | -0.592 | 0.554 |
T | 52.500 | -0.673 | 0.501 |
V | 55.500 | -0.512 | 0.609 |
TMD | 50.500 | -0.779 | 0.436 |
Post-test (Forest, standing) | A | 59.500 | -0.301 | 0.764 |
C | 63.000 | -0.108 | 0.914 |
D | 51.000 | -0.763 | 0.445 |
F | 53.000 | -0.647 | 0.517 |
T | 62.500 | -0.135 | 0.893 |
V | 60.000 | -0.269 | 0.788 |
TMD | 59.500 | -0.295 | 0.768 |
Post-test (Marine, sitting) | A | 56.000 | -0.491 | 0.624 |
C | 64.500 | -0.027 | 0.979 |
D | 59.500 | -0.302 | 0.762 |
F | 58.500 | -0.351 | 0.726 |
T | 51.000 | -0.756 | 0.450 |
V | 54.500 | -0.565 | 0.572 |
TMD | 54.000 | -0.591 | 0.554 |
Post-test (Marine, standing) | A | 57.500 | -0.415 | 0.696 |
C | 59.500 | -0.298 | 0.766 |
D | 52.500 | -0.684 | 0.494 |
F | 58.500 | -0.352 | 0.725 |
T | 57.000 | -0.431 | 0.666 |
V | 61.000 | -0.216 | 0.829 |
TMD | 57.000 | -0.430 | 0.667 |
A, anger; C, confusion; D, depression; F, fatigue; T, tension; V, vigour; TMD, Total mood disturbance.
3.5 Descriptive statistics for the Presence Questionnaire, the Connectedness to Nature Scale, and the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire
Table 7 presents the standard deviation, variance and percentage of scores reported in these three questionnaires. Participants show moderate levels in presence and connectedness to nature in both forest and marine (PQ: median = 4.208, CNS-F: median = 3.29, CNS-M: median = 3.43), and generally low level in sickness (mode = 0). For PQ and CNS, the scores were concentrated to the mean value (PQ: variance = 0.232, CNS-F: variance = 0.293, CNS-M: variance = 0.314). For SSQ, the scores in oculomotor disturbance (50th percentile = 4.00) were higher than that in nausea (50th percentile = 1.00) and disorientation (50th percentile = 1.00). The scores in oculomotor disturbance (variance = 22.628) were more dispersed than those in nausea (variance = 7.826) and disorientation (variance = 14.213).
Table 7
Descriptive statistics for the Presence Questionnaire, the Connectedness to Nature Scale, and the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire
| PQ | CNS-F | CNS-M | SSQ-N | SSQ-O | SSQ-D |
Median | 4.2083333 | 3.2857143 | 3.4285714 | 1.00 | 4.00 | 1.00 |
Mode | 4.20833 | 3.00000 | 3.07143 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Range | 1.58333 | 2.71429 | 3.07143 | 8 | 16 | 14 |
Standard deviation | 0.48148206 | 0.54119318 | .56013220 | 2.797 | 4.757 | 3.770 |
Variance | .232 | 0.293 | 0.314 | 7.826 | 22.628 | 14.213 |
Percentiles | | | | | | |
25th | 4.0000000 | 3.0000000 | 3.0714286 | 0.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 |
50th | 4.2083333 | 3.2857143 | 3.4285714 | 1.00 | 4.00 | 1.00 |
75th | 4.7916667 | 3.7857143 | 3.8571429 | 4.00 | 9.00 | 4.00 |
PQ, Presence Questionnaire; CNS, the Connectedness to Nature Scale; F, Forest; M, Marine; SSQ, Simulator Sickness Questionnaire; N, Nausea; O, Oculomotor disturbance; D, Disorientation.