Examining the learning objectives related to sustainable development in high school physics curricula vis-à-vis the sustainable development goals and revised Bloom’s taxonomy

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3981308/v1

This study determines and classifies the learning objectives related to sustainable development (SD) in the physics curricula of the 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grades in line with the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations (UN) and Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (RBT). The classification of learning objectives in line with RBT revealed that these objectives only focus on the cognitive domain, and no learning objectives considering the affective and psychomotor domains were present in the curriculum. Regarding the levels of cognitive learning, the objectives were mainly related to applying, analyzing, and evaluating. The classification of objectives in line with the SD goals showed that the objectives were mostly concerned with the economic pillar of sustainability, followed by the environmental and social pillars. The study concludes that SD-related learning objectives in the physics curriculum are related to the cognitive domain rather than the affective and psychomotor domains.

Sustainable development

physics curriculum objectives

revised Bloom’s taxonomy

The concept of sustainability came to the agenda with the 1987 Brundtland Report and the UN started to work on the subject. The studies categorized sustainable development (SD) under environmental, economic and social headings. In 2015, the UN set targets for sustainable development until 2030. The UN emphasized that it is important to achieve the set targets, and countries, institutions and organizations were asked to fulfill their responsibilities. There are studies on the limitations of the sustainable development themes identified by the UN. These limitations are summarized as; the themes do not meet today's expectations, some themes are prominent, economic growth and SD are contradictory, the themes are human-centered, the studies are not sufficient in achieving SD goals, the studies are at the cognitive level (the implementation aspect is weak), the themes should be structured according to cultures, although there is an awareness (awareness) for SD in education and training activities, the implementation aspect is weak.

According to Baum (2021), since the criteria for sustainable development set by the United Nations (UN) are insufficient and do not meet today's expectations, he proposed criteria for a coherent comprehensive economy, social justice, environment, needs and rights, democracy and long-term perspective, and stated that social issues should be prioritized. In addition to the environmental, economic and social dimensions of sustainable development, it should include ecocentric education, eco-pedagogy and different economic models (Kopnina, 2020). Moreover, the SD criteria are set according to global goals and do not take into account the cultural structures of nations (regions). Subject content for SD in courses should be shaped according to culture, critical pedagogy should be adopted, and it should be a lifelong learning process (Gokool-Ramdoo & Rumjaun 2017).

Environmental studies have come to the fore in studies on sustainability. It was emphasized that sustainability is not limited to environmental protection and environmental science (Washington, 2015). It was stated that sustainable development education should be separated from environmental education and problem-based interdisciplinary learning should be provided (Dale & Newman, 2005).

Studies have shown that there is a contradiction between economic growth and sustainability and that sustainability and sustainable development are not the same thing. Sustainability and sustainable development are not the same thing (Washington, 2015), the main causes of environmental unsustainability are precisely the population and consumption growth associated with economic growth and industrial development and the increasing demand for natural resources (Kahn, 2010; Kopnina, 2016; O' Neill, 2012; Washington, 2018). Social and economic priorities have been emphasized at the expense of ecological concerns in education and training processes (Bonnett, 2015; Fien, 2010; Kahn, 2010; Kopnina, 2016; Nocella, 2007; Sitka-Sage et al., 2017). It has been noted that economic growth to raise living standards will have a potentially devastating impact on the global ecosystem (Nemetz 2013). They have also identified that economic growth fuels massive expansion of industrial activities, competition for increasingly scarce resources, and associated social inequalities and turmoil (Rees, 2010; Wijkman & Rockström 2012; Kopnina & Blewitt, 2014; Washington, 2015).

It has been stated in scientific studies that sustainable development is a human-centered approach. Sustainability is defined in the Brundtland report (1987) as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Bonnett (2007) stated that sustainable development is human and economy-centered. It is stated that development is aimed at achieving a high quality of life for people, which will lead to a decrease in biodiversity, climate change and natural resource depletion, and highly unethical relationships with nature (Washington, 2015, 2018). Molina-Motos (2019) argues that UNESCO's education and training program for a sustainable future mainly emphasizes social and economic priorities to the exclusion of eco-philosophical principles.

Scientific studies on sustainability development practices and the goals to be achieved are insufficient and studies are focused on certain themes. In a synthesis study on sustainability, 26 of 44 studies were on the themes of education for sustainable development or environmental education, 12 on global citizenship or development, and 6 on intercultural education (O'Flaherty & Liddy 2018). In the study on the analysis of sustainable development and its goals, goals such as education, climate, energy, sustainable cities, natural habitat, consumption and production came to the fore in sustainable development (Shulla et al., 2020).

Education and training on sustainable development has emphasized cognitive level knowledge, awareness and consciousness-raising activities and practical sustainability education and training activities have been insufficient. In a meta-analysis study on raising awareness for sustainable development, it was emphasized that more research is needed for students to promote sustainability (Gómez-Olmedo et al.,I, 2020). The need to strengthen the link between formal and informal education related to sustainability (Gokool-Ramdoo & Rumjaun, 2017). In a study on the formation of sustainable development awareness in students, it was found that there are significant differences between schools that provide sustainable development education and schools that do not, and that the level of these differences is low (Berglund et al., 2014).

As education and training activities are related to broader societal goals, students must be provided with the necessary skills to overcome societal challenges such as unsustainability. In sustainability education, emphasis needs to be placed on practice. Unesco (2005) emphasized that the teacher education program should be revised to address sustainability and the basic principles of sustainable development should be included in the teacher education program. Public institutions, private organizations, local governments and educational institutions have great duties in achieving SD 2030. Unesco has stated that SD should start from schools. There is no clear or systematic situation about how SD and its content and applications should be in education programs.

The aim of this study is to contribute to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor dimensions of the physics course by classifying the achievements related to SD and eco-efficiency according to the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy. In addition, it is to contribute to strengthening the relationships between the fields of science related to SD. It is important to contribute to the studies to be carried out for the restructuring of the physics curriculum.

With the increase in the world’s population, the need for living spaces, food, clean water, clean air, and energy has also increased. The finite nature of the world’s resources has led to problems such as environmental pollution, hunger, famine, scarcity, diseases, global warming, and climate change, which in turn indirectly lead to problems such as terrorism, war, civil unrest, migration, economic problems, unemployment, income inequality, and injustice. Domestic problems have escalated to regional and global problems. Regardless of the level of their contribution to the problem, all countries in the world have been equally affected by the consequences of global warming. For example, the impact of climate change, one of the consequences of global warming, is felt all over the world. Problems resulting from changes in the atmosphere, land degradation, and disturbance in the seas affect all living and nonliving things in nature.

Joint efforts to address global challenges should consider regional and global dynamics. The meaningful fight against these problems started in the 1940s with the Green Revolution. This initiative, which continued from the 1940s to the 1970s, aimed to increase global agricultural production to meet the needs of the population. However, the increased use of chemical fertilizers and chemicals for pests, water consumption, and deforestation for farmland expansion contributed to the emergence of the global problems being faced today. The resolution agreed upon in the United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 emphasized the need to place environmental issues at the forefront of development and to cooperate in resolving environmental issues.

Individuals, institutions, and organizations should adopt environment-friendly policies to create a livable world for future generations and meet the needs of the current one. In 1987, “Sustainable Development (SD)” became a topic of emphasis for the UN, and in the Brundtland report, SD was defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland, 1987). Then, in 1992, a roadmap for sustainability was laid out at the UN Conference on Environment and Development. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol, which operationalizes the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, was signed and the first international framework on sustainability was put into practice. In 2000, with the declaration of the Millennium Development Goals, the UN identified the “global aims of SD,” and in 2015, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development was adopted by all UN member states to eliminate poverty, protect the planet from degradation, and reduce equality and injustice. In this context, the sustainable development goals (SDGs) of no poverty, zero hunger, good health and well-being, quality education, gender equality, clean water and sanitation, affordable and clean energy, decent work and economic growth, industrial innovation and infrastructure, reduced inequalities, sustainable cities and communities, responsible consumption and production, climate action, aquatic life, life on land, peace, justice and strong institutions, and partnerships for the goals were adopted by UN member states (UNESCO, 2015).

Sustainable Development in Education

Countries, institutions, organizations, and individuals have a role to play in achieving SD. The UN Conference on Environment and Development (also known as the “Earth Summit”) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 emphasized that a better, peaceful, and sustainable future starts with education. The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development held in Johannesburg emphasized that education is a priority in forming a social and intellectual basis for the implementation of SD principles (Nasibulina, 2015). In sustainability education, students should be provided with knowledge that will enable them to build strategies that ensure our present and future well-being (Bell, 2016). Although there is no single pedagogical style for teaching sustainability, participatory and experimental approaches that lead to a change in students’ opinions and actions and make meaningful differences stand out.

The 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio emphasized the importance of education, training, and raising public awareness for achieving SD. At the conference, countries were called to integrate the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of development into formal education curricula. Courses offered to students at school are directly or indirectly connected with different dimensions of sustainability. Consequently, sustainability can be integrated into the curricula. To improve sustainability education, sustainability-related topics across all relevant disciplines can be added to the curricula (Tilbury and Wortman, 2004).

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of inputs to outputs (Prokopenko, 2001). This definition is adequate in the context of economics, but it is insufficient to express educational efficiency. Although the ratio of those entering the education system to those leaving the education system may be an indicator of quantitative efficiency, it does not fully reflect the quality of education. Efficiency in education has two dimensions: “internal” and “external.” Internal efficiency refers to the relationship between quantitative inputs and nonmonetary outcomes, whereas external efficiency refers to the relationship between qualitative inputs and monetary outcomes.

Internal efficiency is represented by statistical data based on the number of students who enter the educational system and successfully complete it (Aydın, 1988) or whether the desired number of students graduate with the desired qualifications (Bülbül, 1983). Internal efficiency treats material and nonmaterial resources, pedagogical practices, and the processes related to the conduct of education as inputs. Material inputs include equipment, textbooks, teaching materials, desks, and classrooms. Nonmaterial inputs include cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of learning, culture, and level of readiness.

External efficiency in education refers to the extent to which an education system contributes to the achievement of socioeconomic and sociocultural objectives. In other words, it measures the role of education in realizing students’ objective of welfare maximization. External efficiency looks at how successful the education system is in producing positive outputs and consequently enabling students to work at better jobs, get higher salaries (Santín & Sicilia, 2014), and reach higher levels of welfare. Inputs of external efficiency are nonmaterial, pedagogical practices.

Positive outcomes in internal and external efficiency of education are reflected positively on SD. Accordingly, to sustainably shape the future, each individual should acquire a set of necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values (UNESCO, 2014). Environmental, social, and economic sustainability aims to make the world more livable in the present and future. Education for sustainable development requires a new learning system that changes the way we live (Ojala, 2016; Wamsler et al., 2018). The internal and external efficiencies of an educational system in producing the desired outputs contribute to the environmental, social, and economic development of individuals, institutions, and countries worldwide. Previous relevant studies have concluded that investments made by a country to improve the educational system contribute to its SD and economic growth (Barro and Lee, 1996, 2012; Hanushek & Kimko, 2000; De la Fuente, 2011; Hanushek & Woessmann, 2012).

Accordingly, the learning objectives in the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula that are related to SD and EE will be identified and classified in line with RBT and the SDGs established by the UN to be achieved in the period between 2015 and 2030 (UNESCO, 2015).

This section The document analysis method, one of the qualitative research methods, was used in the study. Document analysis refers to the examination of written materials that contain information on a topic for analysis, knowledge development, and meaning extraction (Bowen, 2009; Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2011). This study examined the learning objectives related to in the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula. Since sustainability and Eco-Efficiency (EE) serve the same purpose in the study, the gains will be considered as joint gains. EE has been identified as one of the main tools to promote transformation from unsustainable development to SD (Huppes & Mansanobu, 2007). Field experts reviewed the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula prepared by the Ministry of National Education of Türkiye (MEB) to find the learning objectives that are directly or indirectly related to SD and EE. These learning objectives were categorized in line with the levels of cognitive learning proposed by RBT (Krathwhol, 2002) and the SDGs adopted by the UN (UNESCO, 2005). The findings, discussion, and conclusion sections of the study were crafted in light of these classifications.

Data Collection

The distribution of the learning objectives in the high school physics curriculum by units, grades, and the number of objectives is given in Table 1. The table is the distribution of 213 learning objectives from 18 units of the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula (MoNE, 2018).

Table 1. Learning objectives in the high school physics curriculum.

Grade	Unit name	Number of learning objectives
9th grade	Introduction to Physics	4
	Properties of Matter	4
	Motion and Force	11
	Energy	8
	Heat and Temperature	13
	Electrostatic	4
10th grade	Electricity and Magnetism	9
	Pressure and Buoyancy	4
	Waves	12
	Optics	14
11th grade	Force and Motion	33
11th grade	Electricity and Magnetism	29
12th grade	Circular Motion	15
	Simple Harmonic Motion	5
	Wave Mechanics	8
	Introduction to Atomic Physics and Radioactivity	11
	Modern Physics	15
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	14
Total		213

Among the learning objectives in the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade curricula, the ones related to SD were identified by field experts in terms of the outcomes they seek to achieve. The distribution of learning objectives related to SD by grade, unit, topic, and topic content is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Distribution of learning objectives related to SD by grade, unit, topic, and topic content.

Grade	Unit	Topic	Learning Objective	Topic Content
A9th grade	Energy	Conservation of Energy and Energy Transformation	Comparing the energy living organisms gain from food with the energy they expend during daily activities	- How living creatures use the energy they get from food for daily activities - The amount of nutrients a person should consume to sustain daily activities - Nutritional needs
	Energy	Efficiency	Explains the concept of efficiency	- Mathematical expression of the concept of efficiency - How to increase energy efficiency and EE (clean production)
	Energy	Efficiency	Developing suggestions to improve the efficiency of a sample system or design	- Identifying actions that can be taken for EE at school and at home - Determining the actions to be taken to increase the efficiency of a system
	Energy	Energy Sources	Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources	- Energy need, definition, and sources of renewable and nonrenewable energy Comparison of renewable and nonrenewable energy - Saving energy
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Making designs to ensure the insulation of living spaces for energy saving	- Conduction of heat, conduction velocity, heat loss, slowing down heat conduction, and determination of factors affecting heat conductivity - Thermal insulation and energy saving
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Developing projects for measures to be taken against global warming	- Greenhouse effect, the negative effects of global warming, prevention of global warming, and the Kyoto Protocol - Development of a project against global warming
10th grade	Electricity and Magnetism	Electric Circuits	Explaining the health and safety precautions to be taken against the dangers of electric currents	- Measures to be taken for protection against electrical accidents - Cautions and warning signs to take heed of when using electrical devices
	Pressure and Buoyancy	Buoyancy	Proposing solutions to the problems in daily life related to buoyancy using buoyancy and/or Bernoulli’s Principle.	- The role of buoyancy in daily life and Bernoulli’s Principle - A project on preventing roof flying accidents resulting from changes in the internal and external pressure of buildings in windy weather
	Waves	Seismic Waves	Developing solutions to prevent the loss of life and property caused by earthquakes	- The nature of earthquakes and solution suggestions to prevent the consequent loss of life and property - A project on creating a model for a building that prevents loss of life and property
11th grade	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Explaining the functions of simple machines used in daily life	- Definition of simple machines - Function, gain, and efficiency of simple machines
	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Designing a safe system made up of simple machines to make life easier.	- A project on a simple machine that will make it easier to complete a daily life task
	Electricity and Magnetism	Transformers	Explaining the intended use of transformers	- Areas where transformers are used and their intended use - Energy loss and efficiency in transformers
12th grade	Circular Motion	Regular Circular Movement	Making calculations to enable vehicles to safely perform the curve movement on horizontal, vertical, and sloping grounds	- Concepts related to regular circular movement - Horizontal and vertical curves and conditions under which curve movement can be performed safely
	Introduction to Atomic Physics and Radioactivity	Radioactivity	Explaining the effects of radiation on living creatures	- Radioactive material, stable and unstable atoms, and radioactive decay - The effect of radiation on living things - Measures to be taken for protection against radioactive materials
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Explaining the importance of semiconductors in technology.	- Properties of semiconductor materials and their role in information technology - The role of semiconductors in electrical and electronic circuits
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Providing examples of where LED technology is used	- LED lighting, energy saving, and efficiency - Application areas of LED technology
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Designing a system powered by solar cells to make life easier	- The importance and working principles of solar cells - Areas of solar cell use -A project on a system running on solar cells that aims to make life easier
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Superconductors	Providing examples of the uses of superconductors in technology.	- Properties of superconductor materials and their use in technology -Zero resistance of superconductors against electric current and reduction of electrical losses
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Nanotechnology	Providing examples of the use of nanomaterials in technology	- Areas of use of nanotechnology and the conveniences and benefits it provides
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Laser Beams	Providing examples of the use of laser beams in technology.	- How laser beams are produced and used - The use and importance of laser beams in technology

The field experts took into account the topic content in determining the learning objectives that are related to SD. Table 2 presents the relevant objectives and grade levels, units, topics, and topic content. In the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula, 20 learning objectives were identified as related to SD and EE from a total of 213 (Table 2). These objectives are predominantly taught as a part of the 9th-grade “Energy” and 12th-grade “Applications of Modern Physics in Technology” units.

Data Analysis

The learning objectives in the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula related to SD and EE were used as the dataset. The World Council for Sustainable Business defined EE (environment-friendly economic efficiency) as a management philosophy that contributes to sustainability (OECD, 2002). Because EE is a sub-component of SD, the identified learning objectives related to these two concepts are regarded as representing the same theme. These objectives were analyzed on the basis of two points: the UN SDGs and RBT.

Sustainable Development: The themes and sub-themes for the UN SDGs are given in Figure 1. The classification of the learning objectives in the curricula was based on these themes. This classification will be taken into account in the analysis of the findings. At the 2005 UN World Summit, SD was defined to have three components: economic development, social development, and environmental protection (UN, 2005).

Environmental sustainability encompasses sub-themes such as natural resources (water, energy, agriculture, and biodiversity), climate change, rural development, sustainable urbanization, disaster prevention, and mitigation.

Social sustainability (cultural) sustainability consists of sub-themes such as human rights, peace and human security, gender equality, cultural diversity and intercultural understanding, health, and co-governance.

Economic sustainability contains sub-themes such as reducing poverty, corporate responsibility and accountability, and market economy (UNESCO, 2005).

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy: The taxonomy proposed by Benjamin S. Bloom in 1956 consisted of a single domain. Updated in 2001, other domains were added. The three domains of RBT and associated levels are given in Figure 2.

The RBT consists of three domains: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

The cognitive domain includes skills such as information recall, understanding meaning, deconstruction of concepts, synthesis, and evaluation.

The affective domain encompasses behaviors such as sensitivity, valuing belief, positive attitude, paying attention, reacting, and having a worldview.

The psychomotor domain includes behaviors that require skills related to movement, sports, and muscles.

The study findings are presented in Tables 3 and 4 in terms of the learning objectives in Table 2 and the criteria in Figures 1 and 2.

Learning objectives related to SD are classified according to the UN SDGs (Figure 1) and RBT (Figure 2).

Classification of learning objectives related to sustainable development in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

SD-related objectives are categorized according to the UN SDGs (table 3). Twenty learning objectives from nine different units of the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics course were classified under the three pillars of SD: environmental, economic, and social.

Table 3. Classification of achievements according to the UN SDGs.

Grade	Unit	Topic	Learning Objective	Environmental	Economic	Social
9th grade	Energy	Conservation of Energy and Energy Transformation	Comparing the energy living organisms gain from food with the energy they expend during daily activities.	✓	✓
	Energy	Efficiency	Explaining the concept of efficiency	✓	✓	✓
	Energy	Efficiency	Developing suggestions to improve the efficiency of a sample system or design	✓	✓
	Energy	Energy Sources	Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources	✓	✓
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Making designs to ensure the insulation of living spaces for energy saving		✓
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Developing projects for measures to be taken against global warming	✓
10th grade	Electricity and Magnetism	Electric Circuits	Explaining the health and safety precautions to be taken against the dangers of electric currents		✓
	Pressure and Buoyancy	Buoyancy	Proposing solutions to the problems in daily life related to buoyancy using buoyancy and/or Bernoulli’s Principle.		✓	✓
	Waves	Seismic Waves	Developing solutions to prevent the loss of life and property caused by earthquakes.		✓	✓
11th grade	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Explaining the functions of simple machines used in daily life	✓	✓	✓
	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Designing a safe system made up of simple machines to make life easier.		✓	✓
	Electricity and Magnetism	Transformers	Explaining the intended use of transformers	✓	✓
12th grade	Circular Motion	Regular Circular Movement	Making calculations to enable vehicles to safely perform the curve movement on horizontal, vertical, and sloping grounds		✓
	Introduction to Atomic Physics and Radioactivity	Radioactivity	Explaining the effects of radiation on living creatures	✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Explaining the importance of semiconductors in technology		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Providing examples of where LED technology is used	✓	✓	✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Designing a system powered by solar cells to make life easier		✓	✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Superconductors	Providing examples of the uses of superconductors in technology	✓	✓	✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Nanotechnology	Providing examples of the use of nanomaterials in technology	✓	✓	✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Laser Beams	Providing examples of the use of laser beams in technology	✓	✓	✓
Total				12	18	10

Objectives and aims were taken into account for this classification. Of the learning objectives, 12 were under the environmental pillar, 18 under the economic pillar, and 10 under the social pillar (Table 3). Some of the learning objectives were classified under more than one pillar. For example, the learning objectives “Providing examples of the use of nanomaterials in technology” contributes to environmental sustainability because tools built using nanotechnology are more durable, cause less pollution, require less energy and water for production, and release less harmful gases and heat; these tools also contribute to economic sustainability because they are of superior quality and have a long shelf-life and social sustainability because they make individuals’ lives easier and can be used in medical applications.

Classification of learning objectives related to sustainable development in line with revised Bloom’s Taxonomy

Because no learning objectives related to the affective or psychomotor domains of RBT were identified in the high school physics curriculum, only the ones that aim to enhance the cognitive domain are presented. Table 4 shows the distribution of the 20 learning objectives from 9 different units of the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics courses under the 6 levels of the cognitive domain of learning.

Table 4. Distribution of the relevant learning objectives by the levels of the RBT cognitive domain.

Grade	Unit	Topic	Learning Objectives	Cognitive Domain
Grade	Unit	Topic	Learning Objectives	Remembering	Understanding	Applying	Analyzing	Evaluating	Creating
9th grade	Energy	Conservation of Energy and Energy Transformation	Comparing the energy living organisms gain from food with the energy they expend during daily activities.	✓	✓		✓
	Energy	Efficiency	Explaining the concept of efficiency		✓
	Energy	Efficiency	Developing suggestions to improve the efficiency of a sample system or design					✓
	Energy	Energy Sources	Evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources				✓	✓	✓
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Making designs to ensure the insulation of living spaces for energy saving			✓		✓
	Energy	Mechanisms and Speed of Energy Transmission	Developing projects for measures to be taken against global warming					✓
10th grade	Electricity and Magnetism	Electric Circuits	Explaining the health and safety precautions to be taken against the dangers of electric current.		✓
	Pressure and Buoyancy	Buoyancy	Proposing solutions to the problems in daily life related to buoyancy using buoyancy and/or Bernoulli’s Principle			✓		✓
	Waves	Seismic Waves	Developing solutions to prevent the loss of life and property caused by earthquakes			✓		✓
11th grade	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Explaining the functions of simple machines used in daily life	✓	✓
	Force and Motion	Simple Machines	Designing a safe system made up of simple machines to make life easier			✓		✓
	Electricity and Magnetism	Transformers	Explaining the intended use of transformers		✓	✓
12th grade	Circular Motion	Regular Circular Movement	Making calculations to enable vehicles to safely perform the curve movement on horizontal, vertical, and sloping grounds			✓	✓
	Introduction to Atomic Physics and Radioactivity	Radioactivity	Explaining the effects of radiation on living creatures		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Explaining the importance of semiconductors in technology		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Providing examples of where LED technology is used		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Semiconductors	Designing a system powered by solar cells to make life easier					✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Superconductors	Providing examples of the uses of superconductors in technology		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Nanotechnology	Providing examples of the use of nanomaterials in technology		✓
	Applications of Modern Physics in Technology	Laser Beams	Providing examples of the use of laser beams in technology		✓
Total				2	11	6	3	8	1

The table shows that of the relevant learning objectives, two are related to remembering, eleven to understanding, six to application, three to analysis, eight to evaluation, and one to creating (Table 4). The objectives were found to be predominantly related to the understanding and evaluation skills of the cognitive domain.

Objectives and aims were found to have a determinant role in the classification of some objectives under multiple skills. For example, the objective “Making designs to ensure the insulation of living spaces for energy saving” was classified under “application” because it enables energy saving in living spaces and “evaluation” because it encompasses making an insulation design.

This study identified and classified the learning objectives in the 9th-, 10th-, 11th-, and 12th-grade physics curricula in line with SDGs and RBT. Of the 213 learning objectives, 20 objectives from 9 units were found to be related to SD; however, the identified objectives only aimed to enhance the cognitive domain and not the affective and psychomotor domains. In the classification of the relevant learning objectives by the levels of the cognitive domain, application, analysis, and evaluation came to the fore in addition to the level of creating. The classification of the relevant learning objectives in line with the SDGs revealed that these objectives are predominantly related to the environmental and economic pillars of SD (Table 3). This may be because these objectives are based on engineering practices.

The cognitive domain of RBT is hierarchical, with higher levels being more complex and depending upon the mastery of the lower levels. Because this hierarchical structure is interrupted at the creation level of the cognitive domain, the outcomes do not reflect higher-order skills. In the study, the identified learning objectives are represented by the cognitive domain, which are oriented toward the internal efficiency of education. It has been emphasized that more research should be carried out to ensure that what students learn about sustainability in the lessons turns into practice (Gómez- Olmedo, Valor & Carrero, 2020). Objectives for enhancing the affective and psychomotor domains, which represent the external efficiency of education, are not included in the examined curricula. To achieve educational goals, the domains of RBT must be hierarchically realized. The behaviors acquired through activities aimed at improving the internal efficiency of education should also be intended to be used in work and daily life, which represent external efficiency. The relevance and compatibility of the gains made by the students with the activities they carry out in their professional lives point to the external efficiency of education (Demirtaş, 1991).

This study found that the learning objectives related to SD aim to improve the internal efficiency of education (objectives representing the cognitive domain) but not external efficiency (objectives representing the affective and psychomotor domains). In other words, the identified learning objectives do not encourage students to acquire behaviors that represent the external efficiency of education, such as creating a more livable world, having environmental awareness, and contributing to environmental protection. Accordingly, learning objectives that aim to raise awareness regarding the environmental, economic, and social pillars of sustainable development contribute to SD. High school physics curricula should feature more learning objectives related to the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of RBT in a hierarchical manner. This will encourage the utilization of cleaner production processes, production of eco-friendly products, and use of fewer resources to ensure sustainability. In addition, increasing the number of learning objectives related to SD and EE and aimed at improving the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of RBT will ultimately contribute to the world’s carrying capacity. In other words, the objectives aimed at improving the internal efficiency of education should also serve to contribute to external efficiency and consequently create value. More learning objectives to enhance the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains of RBT should be included in the curricula. Learning objectives are mediated by different direct outputs of the education system: cognitive skills, attitudes, and behaviors (Lockheed and Hanushek, 1994).

To achieve the UN SDGs by 2030, more learning objectives related to SD must be included in physics curricula. UNESCO emphasized the need for all learners to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote SD (UNESCO, 2015). Such knowledge and skills should promote sustainable lifestyles, a clean environment, human rights, equality, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and cultural contribution to SD (UNESCO, 2015). To preserve a livable world for present and future generations, learning objectives related to sustainability and aimed at enhancing the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains should be taught at every stage of education. At the primary school level, SD related learning objectives should focus on helping students gain knowledge, and at the secondary school level, the relevant attitudes and behaviors should be promoted along with knowledge. In undergraduate and postgraduate education, the relevant knowledge should be reinforced with applied activities, thereby helping students acquire the target attitudes and behaviors. In education, higher-order achievements should be emphasized, and investments in education should be made in a manner that ultimately contributes to SD. The literature emphasizes that a country’s investment in quality education is essential for its SD and economic growth (Barro and Lee, 2012; Hanushek and Kimko, 2000; De la Fuente, 2011; Hanushek and Woessmann, 2012). Themes oriented toward sustainability education should be included in the curricula of all courses across disciplines (Tilbury and Wortman, 2004). To meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland, 1987), the aims of SD must be realized globally.

Institutions and organizations have important roles to play in achieving the UN’s 2030 SDGs. The required time and resources should be allocated to facilitate a change in students’ thinking and behavior toward SD, utilize participatory and experiential learning, and encourage critical thinking, imagining future scenarios, and practical learning. Educational institutions should integrate more subjects related to SD into their curricula and learning processes. The number of learning objectives in physics curricula that help students acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors that foster SD should be increased.

“Author Declarations”

Funding This study was not supported by any institution or organization.

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests (include appropriate disclosures) The author declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethics approval/declarations Not applicable

Consent to participate Not applicable

Consent for publication Not applicable

Availability of data and material/ Data availability The data are readily available on request and all data analyzed during this study.

Code availability The scripts used in data analysis are readily available on request.

Authors' contributions The author is solely responsible for the conception, design, data collection and analysis, writing and revision of the manuscript.

Aydın, M. (1988). "Education Management", Hatipoğlu Publishing House, .2. Basım, Ankara.
Barro, R. J., and Lee, J.-W. (2012). A new data set of educational attainment in the world, 1950– 2010. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 184–198.
Baum, R. (2021). Sustaınable Development /A Modern Understandıng Of The Concept. Annals Paaae, Vol. XXIII, No. (2),8-29. DOI: 10.5604/01.3001.0015.0026
Bell, D. V. J. (2016). Twenty-first-century education: transformative education for sustainability and responsible citizenship. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 18, 48-56.
Bell, D. V. J. (2016). Twenty-first-century education: transformative education for sustainability and responsible citizenship. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 18, 48-56.
Berglund, T., Gericke, N and Chang Rundgren, S. N.( 2014). “The Implementation of Education for Sustainable Development in Sweden: Investigating the Sustainability Consciousness among Upper Secondary Students.” Research in Science and Technological Education 32 (3): 318–339.
Bonnett, M. (2007). Environmental education and the issue of nature. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 39(6), 707–721. doi:10.1080/00220270701447149.
Bowen, A. G. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40.
Bruntland, G. (1987). "Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development", Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Bülbül, S. (1983). "Education Planning and Expenditures" Education in the Republican Era M. Eğt. Basımevi, 1983.
Dale, A. and Newman, L. (2005), "Sustainable development, education and literacy", International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education, Vol. 6 No. 4, pp. 351-362. https://doi.org/10.1108/14676370510623847.
De La Fuente, A. (2011). Human capital and productivity. Nordic Economic Policy Review, 2, 103- 131.
Demirtaş, A. (1991). Quality in Education: In Its Present and Future: "Improving Quality in Education". Directorate of Culture College, Istanbul, pp.28-29.
Demirtaş, A. (2012). Quality in Education: In Its Present and Future: "Developing Quality in Education", Directorate of Culture College, Istanbul, 1991, pp.28-29.
Gokool-Ramdoo, S. and Rumjaun, A (2017). Education for sustainable development: Connecting the dots for sustainability. Journal of Learning for Development, Commonwealth of Learning. Volume IV No. 1. Available: http://www.jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/170
Gokool-Ramdoo, S. and Rumjaun, A. (2017). Education for sustainable development: Connecting the dots for sustainability. Journal of Learning for Development, Commonwealth of Learning. Volume IV No. 1. Available: http://www.jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/170.
Gómez-Olmedo, A.M. Valor, C. & Carrero, I.(2020). Mindfulness in education for sustainable development to nurture socioemotional competencies: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Environmental Education Research. Vol. 26, nº. 11, pp. 1527 – 1555. OI reference: 10.1080/13504622.2020.1777264
Gómez-Olmedo, A.M. Valor, C. & Carrero, I.(2020). Mindfulness in education for sustainable development to nurture socioemotional competencies: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Environmental Education Research. Vol. 26, nº. 11, pp. 1527 – 1555. OI reference: 10.1080/13504622.2020.1777264.
Hanushek, E. A., and Kimko, D. D. (2000). Schooling, labor-force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review, 90(5), 1184-1208.
Hanushek, E. A., and Woessmann, L. (2012). Do better schools lead to more growth? Cognitive skills, economic outcomes, and causation. Journal of Economic Growth, 17(4), 267-321.
Huppes, G. & Mansanobu, I. (2007). Quantified eco-efficiency: An introduction with applications. (Vol. 22). Springer London.
Kahn, R. (2010). Critical pedagogy, eco-literacy, & planetary crisis: The eco pedagogy movement. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Kopnina, H. (2012). Education for Sustainable Development (ESD): The turn away from ‘environment’ in environmental education? Environmental Education Research, 18(5), 699–717. doi:10.1080/13504622.2012.658028.
Kopnina, H. (2020): Education for the future? Critical evaluation of education for sustainable development goals, The Journal of Environmental Education, DOI: 10.1080/00958964.2019.1710444 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00958964.2019.1710444.
Kopnina, H., and J. Blewitt. 2014. Sustainable Business: Key Issues. New York: Routledge. [Crossref], [Google Scholar].
Krathwhol, D. R., 2002,. A revision of Bloom taxonomy: an overview. Theory Into Practice, 212-264
Lockheed, M. E. and Hanushek, E. (1994) Concepts of educational efficiency and effectiveness. Human Resources Development and Operations Policy Working Papers No. 24. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Lockheed, M. E. and Hanushek, E. (1994). Concepts of educational efficiency and effectiveness. Human Resources Development and Operations Policy Working Papers No. 24. Washington, DC: World Bank.
MEB. (2018). Secondary education Physics Course Curriculum. Board of Education. Ankara
Molina-Motos, D. (2019). Ecophilosophical principles for an ecocentric environmental education. Education Sciences, 9(1), 37. doi:10.3390/educsci9010037.
Nasibulina, A. (2015). Education for sustainable development and environmental ethics. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 214, 1077-1082.
Nemetz, P. 2013. Business and Sustainability Challenge: An Integrated Perspective. New York: Routledge. [Google Scholar].
Nocella, A. (2007). Unmasking the animal liberation front using critical pedagogy: Seeing the ALF for who they really are. Journal for Critical Animal Studies, 1, 1–10.
O’Flaherty,J & Liddy, M, (2018) The impact of development education and education for sustainable development interventions: a synthesis of the research, Environmental Education Research, 24:7, 1031-1049, DOI: 10.1080/13504622.2017.1392484 To link to this article: ttps://doi.org/10.1080/13504622.2017.1392484.
OECD Secretariat. (2002). Indicators to measure decoupling of environmental pressure from economic growth. Sustainable development, Retrieved from, http://www.docstoc.com/docs/84838188/oecd_decoupling
Ojala, M. (2016). “Facing Anxiety in Climate Change Education: From Therapeutic Practice to Hopeful Transgressive Learning.” Canadian Journal of Environmental Education 21: 41–56. [Google Scholar]
Prokopenko, J. (2001), Productivity Management (trans: O. Baykal., N. Atalay, E. Fidan), Ankara: MPM Publication (476).
Rees, W. 2010. “What’s Blocking Sustainability? Human Nature, Cognition, and Denial.” Sustainability: Science, Practice, and Policy 6 (2): 13–25. [Taylor & Francis Online], [Google Scholar].
Santín, D. and Sicilia, G. (2014). The teacher effect: An efficiency analysis from a natural experiment in Spanish primary schools. Workshop on efficiency in education. Lancaster University Management School. London, September 19-20.
Shulla, K, Leal Filho, W, Lardjane, S, Sommer, JH and Borgemeister, C (2020). Sustainable development education in the context of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. International Journal of Sustainable Development and World Ecology, 27 (5). pp. 458-468. ISSN 1350-4509.
Sitka-Sage, M. D., Kopnina, H., Blenkinsop, S., & Piersol, L. (2017). Rewilding education in troubling times; or, getting back to the wrong post-nature. Visions for Sustainability, 8, 1–19.
Tilbury & Wortman (2004). Engaging People İn Sustainability. IUCN Commission on Education and Communication (CEC) IUCN – The World Conservation Union.
Tilbury & Wortman (2004). Engaging People İn Sustainability. IUCN Commission on Education and Communication (CEC) IUCN – The World Conservation Union.
UNESCO (2014). Global citizenship education: preparing learners for the challenges of the 21st century.
Unesco. (2005). Educatıon for Sustaınable Development in Actıon. Technical Paper No. 2. Paris.
UNESCO. (2005). United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development 2005–2014: UNESCO International Implementation Scheme; Paris, France.
UNESCO. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs.
Wamsler, C., J. Brossmann, H. Hendersson, R. Kristjansdottir, C. McDonald, and P. Scarampi. (2018). “Mindfulness in Sustainability Science, Practice, and Teaching.” Sustainability Science 13 (1): 143–162. doi:10.1007/s11625-017-0428-2. [Google Scholar]
Washington, H. (2015). Is ‘sustainability’ the same as ‘sustainable development’? In H. Kopnina & E. Shoreman-Ouimet (Eds), Sustainability: Key issues (pp. 359–376). New York, NY: Routledge.
Washington, H. (2018). Education for wonder. Education Sciences, 8(3), 125–139. doi:10.3390/educsci8030125.
Wijkman, A., and J. Rockström. (2012). Bankrupting Nature: Denying Our Planetary Boundaries. New York: Routledge. [Google Scholar]
Yadong, Y (2013). "Eco-efficiency trends in china, 1978-2010:decoupling environmental pressure from economic growth". Ecological Indicators. 24: 177–184.
Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H. (2008). Qualitative research methods in social sciences. (6. Edition). Ankara: Distinguished.

No competing interests reported.

Examining the learning objectives related to sustainable development in high school physics curricula vis-à-vis the sustainable development goals and revised Bloom’s taxonomy

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Literature

Introduction

1. Methods

2. Findings

3. Discussion and Conclusion

4. Recommendations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1