Descriptive statistics on socio-demographic and anthropometric characteristics
Data referent to all 4596 respondents is presented in Table 1. Generally, more males (N = 2308) than females (N = 2288) were included in the study. Majority of the respondents were aged 60–89 years (males = 50.4%, females = 54.6%) with a statistical difference between males and females. Many male respondents were married (83.0%), whereas many females were widowed (46.5%). While many males had secondary education (45.9%), quite a proportion of females had no primary education (38.3%). There were more right-handed respondents than others, although the right-hand female respondents (94.2%) were more than males (92.8%). Alcohol consumption and tobacco use were relatively lower among females (45.9% and 7.7%) than among males (69.5% and 42.6%), but no statistical difference between males and females was recorded for alcohol consumption. Many females and males reported not having diabetes, even though more females (4.4%) compared males (3.2%) had diabetes. More females (64.7%) than males (64.3%) reported no fatigue. There was, however, no statistical difference between both sexes. There were differences in the distribution of wealth quintile for males and females, but no statistically significant difference was observed between males and females.
Table 1
Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents by sex
Variables | Males (N = 2308) | | Females (N = 2288) | | Total (N = 4596) |
| N | % | p-value | N | % | p-value | N | % |
Age | | | ** | | | ** | | |
50–59 | 1116 | 48.4 | | 1006 | 44.0 | | 2122 | 46.2 |
60–89 | 1163 | 50.4 | | 1250 | 54.6 | | 2413 | 52.5 |
90–115 | 29 | 1.3 | | 32 | 1.4 | | 61 | 1.3 |
Marital Status | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Married | 1916 | 83.0 | | 763 | 33.3 | | 2679 | 58.3 |
Cohabiting | 21 | 0.9 | | 13 | 0.6 | | 34 | 0.7 |
Separated | 183 | 7.9 | | 417 | 18.2 | | 600 | 13.1 |
Widowed | 163 | 7.1 | | 1065 | 46.5 | | 1228 | 26.7 |
Never Married | 25 | 1.1 | | 30 | 1.3 | | 55 | 1.2 |
Level of Education | | | *** | | | *** | | |
No education | 560 | 24.3 | | 877 | 38.3 | | 1437 | 31.3 |
Primary | 560 | 24.3 | | 652 | 28.5 | | 1212 | 26.4 |
Secondary | 1036 | 45.9 | | 681 | 29.8 | | 1717 | 37.3 |
Tertiary | 152 | 6.6 | | 78 | 3.4 | | 230 | 5.0 |
Hand Dominance | | | * | | | * | | |
Left | 140 | 6.1 | | 106 | 4.6 | | 246 | 5.4 |
Right | 2142 | 92.8 | | 2155 | 94.2 | | 4297 | 93.5 |
Both | 26 | 1.1 | | 27 | 1.2 | | 53 | 1.2 |
Tobacco use | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 984 | 42.6 | | 177 | 7.7 | | 1161 | 25.3 |
No | 1324 | 57.4 | | 2111 | 92.3 | | 3435 | 74.7 |
Alcohol Consumption | | | | | | | | |
Yes | 1604 | 69.5 | | 1051 | 45.9 | | 2655 | 57.8 |
No | 704 | 30.5 | | 1237 | 54.1 | | 1941 | 42.2 |
Employment | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 1755 | 76.0 | | 1513 | 66.1 | | 3268 | 71.1 |
No | 553 | 24.0 | | 775 | 33.9 | | 1328 | 28.9 |
Depression | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 19 | 0.8 | | 42 | 1.8 | | 61 | 1.3 |
No | 2289 | 99.2 | | 2246 | 98.2 | | 4535 | 98.7 |
Fatigue | | | | | | | | |
None | 1484 | 64.3 | | 1480 | 64.7 | | 2964 | 64.5 |
Mild | 289 | 12.5 | | 289 | 12.6 | | 578 | 12.6 |
Moderate | 467 | 20.2 | | 466 | 20.4 | | 933 | 20.3 |
Severe/Extreme | 68 | 2.9 | | 53 | 2.3 | | 121 | 2.6 |
Physical Activity | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 1617 | 70.1 | | 1529 | 66.8 | | 3146 | 68.5 |
No | 691 | 29.9 | | 759 | 33.2 | | 1450 | 31.5 |
Diabetes | | | * | | | * | | |
Yes | 75 | 3.2 | | 100 | 4.4 | | 175 | 3.8 |
No | 2233 | 96.8 | | 2188 | 95.6 | | 4421 | 96.2 |
Hypertension | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 223 | 9.7 | | 401 | 17.5 | | 624 | 13.6 |
No | 2085 | 90.3 | | 1887 | 82.5 | | 3972 | 86.4 |
Arthritis | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Yes | 222 | 9.6 | | 327 | 14.3 | | 549 | 11.9 |
No | 2086 | 90.4 | | 1961 | 85.7 | | 4047 | 88.1 |
Stroke | | | | | | | | |
Yes | 53 | 2.3 | | 63 | 2.8 | | 116 | 2.5 |
No | 2255 | 97.7 | | 2225 | 97.2 | | 4480 | 97.5 |
Wealth quintile | | | *** | | | *** | | |
Lowest | 444 | 19.2 | | 469 | 20.5 | | 913 | 19.9 |
Lower | 421 | 18.2 | | 479 | 20.9 | | 900 | 19.6 |
Middle | 453 | 19.6 | | 476 | 20.8 | | 929 | 20.2 |
Higher | 466 | 20.2 | | 453 | 19.8 | | 919 | 20.0 |
Highest | 524 | 22.7 | | 411 | 18.0 | | 935 | 20.3 |
Source: SAGE, Wave 1 (Ghana), 2007–2008 |
Note: N denotes number of observations |
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 t test statistical significance between sex. |
General and anthropometric data referent to all 4596 study participants is presented in Table 2. Mean weight was 68.20 ± 46.08, with no statistical difference between males and females. Mean height was 165.85 ± 57.06, with a statistically significant difference between males and females. The average grip strength for the left and right hands were 26.16 ± 12.07 and 27.46 ± 12.01, respectively. Weight (69.97 ± 46.40) and BMI (24.29 ± 12.95) were significantly greater in females whereas grip strength in both hands (left = 29.71 ± 11.83 and right = 31.05 ± 11.78) and height (170.34 ± 60.43) were greater in males. |
Table 2
Anthropometric characteristics of respondents (by sex)
Variables | Males (N = 2308) | Females (N = 2288) | Total(N = 4596) |
| Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD |
Weight | 66.42 ± 45.74 | 69.97 ± 46.40 | 68.20 ± 46.08 |
Height | 170.34 ± 60.43*** | 161.33 ± 53.09*** | 165.85 ± 57.06 |
BMI | 22.79 ± 9.64*** | 24.29 ± 12.95*** | 23.53 ± 11.43 |
Hand grip strength (left hand) | 29.71 ± 11.83*** | 22.59 ± 11.21*** | 26.16 ± 12.07 |
Hand grip strength (right hand) | 31.05 ± 11.78*** | 23.84 ± 11.12*** | 27.46 ± 12.01 |
Source: SAGE, Wave 1 (Ghana), 2007–2008 |
Note: N denotes number of observations |
*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 t test statistical significance between sex. |
A Stepwise regression analysis on the association between predictor variables and grip strength |
The relationship between grip strength and correlates such as age, sex, weight, BMI, diabetes and physically active were evaluated, and are presented in Table 3. There were differences in the relationship outcomes between these variables and grip strength of a hand type. Fourteen out of eighteen variables had a statistically significant relationship with grip strength for both hands. Diabetes and wealth quintile were not significantly related to grip strength for both hands. For the left hand, hand dominance and stroke were not significantly related to grip strength whereas alcohol and hypertension were not significantly related with grip strength measured from the right hand. There was a statistically significant inverse relationship between age, sex, marital status, fatigue, and grip strength for both hands. This influence was greatest in the older age groups, 90–115 (left [ꞵ= -7.71, p < 0.001] and right [ꞵ= -8.20, p < 0.001]) among females (left [ꞵ= -4.71, p < 0.001 and right [ꞵ= -5.11, p < 0.001]) than males, among the separated or divorced (left [ꞵ= -2.27, p < 0.05 and right [ꞵ= -1.63, p < 0.05]), among those who experienced extreme or severe fatigue (left [ꞵ= -1.89, p < 0.01 and right [ꞵ= -0.58 p < 0.05]). |
Table 3
Relationship between predictor variables and grip strength
Variables | Left hand | | Right hand | |
| ꞵ | p value | ꞵ | p value |
Age | | | | |
50–59 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
60–89 | -2.90 | < 0.001 | -3.34 | < 0.001 |
90–115 | -7.71 | < 0.001 | -8.20 | < 0.001 |
Sex | | | | |
Males | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Females | -4.71 | < 0.001 | -5.11 | < 0.001 |
Marital | | | | |
Married | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Cohabiting | -1.13 | < 0.05 | -0.65 | < 0.05 |
Separated/Divorced | -2.27 | < 0.05 | -1.63 | < 0.05 |
Widowed | -1.28 | < 0.05 | -1.44 | < 0.05 |
Never married | -1.18 | < 0.05 | -1.10 | < 0.05 |
Education | | | | |
No education | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Primary | 0.15 | < 0.05 | 0.46 | < 0.05 |
Secondary | 1.36 | < 0.05 | 0.65 | < 0.05 |
Tertiary | 1.81 | < 0.01 | 0.72 | < 0.05 |
Hand Dominance | | | | |
Left | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Right | 0.21 | < 0.1 | 2.99 | < 0.001 |
Both | 1.83 | < 0.1 | 4.050 | < 0.001 |
Tobacco Use | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 0.73 | < 0.1 | 0.72 | < 0.1 |
Alcohol | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 0.19 | < 0.05 | 0.37 | < 0.1 |
Employment | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | -1.25 | < 0.01 | -0.52 | < 0.05 |
Depression | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 7.30 | < 0.001 | 7.31 | < 0.001 |
Fatigue | | | | |
None | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Mild | -1.10 | < 0.01 | 0.41 | < 0.05 |
Moderate | -1.12 | < 0.05 | 0.47 | < 0.05 |
Severe/Extreme | -1.89 | < 0.01 | 0.58 | < 0.05 |
Physically Active | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | − 0.84 | < 0.05 | -1.43 | < 0.001 |
Diabetes | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 0.31 | < 0.1 | 0.38 | < 0.1 |
Hypertension | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 1.38 | < 0.01 | 0.66 | < 0.1 |
Arthritis | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 5.72 | < 0.001 | 5.97 | < 0.001 |
Stroke | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 0.92 | < 0.1 | 2.18 | < 0.05 |
Wealth quintile | | | | |
Lowest | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Lower | 0.18 | < 0.1 | 0.85 | < 0.1 |
Middle | 0.58 | < 0.1 | 0.42 | < 0.1 |
Higher | 0.61 | < 0.1 | 0.34 | < 0.1 |
Highest | 0.74 | < 0.1 | 1.11 | < 0.1 |
Weight | 0.02 | < 0.05 | 0.01 | < 0.05 |
Height | 0.01 | < 0.05 | 0.04 | < 0.05 |
BMI | 0.05 | < 0.05 | 0.11 | < 0.05 |
Source: SAGE, Wave 1 (Ghana), 2007–2008 |
Note: ꞵ denotes coefficients |
a1 represents reference level |
p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001, statistical significance between left and right hands |
Multiple linear regression analyses on the predictors of grip strength
Table 4 depicts results on the predictors of grip strength among the elderly population in Ghana. The outcomes of the three groups of models are illustrated in the table. The first, second and third group of models are standard linear (Model 1), transformed linear (Model 2) and robust linear regression models (Model 3, A and B), respectively. From the models, all variables had statistically significant effects on grip strength. However, most of the significant predictors had an oscillating relationship with grip strength depending on the type of hand measured. Except for education, all demographic variables had an inverse association with grip strength. Grip strength was decreased with age, 60–89 (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= -2.89, p < 0.001}, right hand {ꞵ= -3.33, p < 0.001}], 90–115 (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= -7.59, p < 0.001}, right hand {ꞵ= -7.84, p < 0.001}]), and on the average was lower among females (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= -4.94, p < 0.001}, right hand {ꞵ= -5.30, p < 0.001}]). Grip strength was higher among persons who were not suffering from hypertension (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= -1.37, p < 0.01}; Model 2, [left hand {ꞵ= -0.20, p < 0.01}]) or arthritis (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= 5.74, p < 0.01}, right hand {ꞵ= 5.90, p < 0.01}]). Additionally, weight (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= 0.95, p < 0.01}, right hand {ꞵ=0.18, p < 0.01}]); Model 2, [left hand {ꞵ=0.59, p < 0.01}, right hand {ꞵ=0.01, p < 0.001}]) and height (Model 1, [left hand {ꞵ= 0.04, p < 0.01}, right hand {ꞵ=0.45, p < 0.01}]); Model 2, [left hand {ꞵ=0.38, p < 0.01}, right hand {ꞵ=0.03, p < 0.001}]) were associated with increased grip strength. Older females had a weaker grip than males. The standard linear models had the least variation (R2 = 45%, each hand) in grip strength explained by the predictors. Model 2 showed a higher level of multicollinearity (VIF > 5) and was heteroscedastic ([left hand {ꞵ= 48.02, p < 0.01), [right hand {ꞵ= 49.36, p < 0.01}) than Model 1 ([left hand {ꞵ= 44.44, p < 0.01), [right hand {ꞵ= 42.43, p < 0.05)]). All the metrics are in agreement that the robust linear models with transformations (Model 3B) provide the best fit to the data (AIC [left hand]: 10447.64, AIC [right hand]: 10055.45).
Table 4
Predictors of grip strength
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 |
Variables | | | | | A | B |
| Left Hand | Right Hand | Left Hand | Right Hand | Left Hand | Right Hand | Left Hand | Right Hand |
| ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) | ꞵ (p values) |
Age | | | | | | | | |
50–59 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
60–89 | -2.89(< 0.001) | -3.33(< 0.001) | -0.29(< 0.001) | -0.32(< 0.001) | -3.07(< 0.001) | -3.48(< 0.001) | -3.04(< 0.001) | -3.09(< 0.001) |
90–115 | -7.59(< 0.001) | -7.84(< 0.001) | -0.91(< 0.001) | -0.95(< 0.001) | -8.39(< 0.001) | -9.22(< 0.001) | -9.70(< 0.001) | -8.03(< 0.001) |
Sex | | | | | | | | |
Male | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Female | -4.94(< 0.001) | -5.30(< 0.001) | -0.11(< 0.001) | 0.97(< 0.001) | -5.86(< 0.001) | -6.89(< 0.001) | -5.49(< 0.001) | -5.28(< 0.001) |
Marital Status | | | | | | | | |
Married | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Cohabiting | -2.11(< 0.05) | -0.73(< 0.05) | -0.03(< 0.05) | -0.04(< 0.05) | -0.05(< 0.05) | -0.14(< 0.05) | -1.33(< 0.05) | -1.13(< 0.05) |
Separated/Divorced | -3.42(< 0.05) | -1.62(< 0.05) | -0.26(< 0.05) | -0.19(< 0.05) | -1.27(< 0.05) | -2.64(< 0.05) | -2.89(< 0.05) | -2.47(< 0.05) |
Widowed | -2.35(< 0.05) | -0.86(< 0.05) | -0.14(< 0.05) | -0.08(< 0.05) | -1.11(< 0.05) | -1.53(< 0.05) | -2.17(< 0.05) | -2.05(< 0.05) |
Never married | -2.33(< 0.05) | -0.84(< 0.05) | -0.09(< 0.05) | -0.06(< 0.05) | -0.09(< 0.05) | -0.35(< 0.05) | -1.92(< 0.05) | -1.92(< 0.05) |
Education | | | | | | | | |
No education | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Primary | 1.45(< 0.05) | 0.52(< 0.05) | 0.02(< 0.05) | 0.05(< 0.05) | 0.14(< 0.05) | 0.34(< 0.05) | 0.54(< 0.05) | 1.01(< 0.01) |
Secondary | 1.55(< 0.05) | 0.57(< 0.05) | 0.11(< 0.01) | 0.07(< 0.01) | 1.44(< 0.05) | 0.59(< 0.01) | 0.89(< 0.01) | 1.32(< 0.01) |
Tertiary | 2.72(< 0.01) | 2.43(< 0.01) | 0.16(< 0.01) | 0.09(< 0.01) | 2.97(< 0.001) | 1.20(< 0.001) | 1.34(< 0.01) | 2.87(< 0.01) |
Employment | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | -1.19(< 0.01) | -0.63(< 0.05) | -0.09(< 0.05) | -0.03(< 0.05) | -1.46(< 0.001) | -2.80(< 0.05) | -1.22(< 0.05) | -1.31(< 0.001) |
Depression | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 7.30(< 0.001) | 7.38(< 0.001) | 1.94(< 0.001) | 1.83(< 0.001) | 6.12(< 0.001) | 5.62(< 0.001) | 1.22(< 0.001) | 1.19(< 0.001) |
Fatigue | | | | | | | | |
None | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
Mild | -1.26(< 0.01) | -0.34(< 0.01) | -0.10(< 0.01) | -0.04(< 0.01) | -5.80(< 0.05) | -1.23(< 0.05) | -1.08(< 0.01) | -1.53(< 0.05) |
Moderate | -1.77(< 0.01) | -0.35(< 0.01) | -0.12(< 0.01) | -0.05(< 0.01) | -8.01(< 0.05) | -1.35(< 0.05) | -1.11(< 0.01) | -2.43(< 0.01) |
Severe/Extreme | -1.89(< 0.01) | -0.39(< 0.01) | -0.14(< 0.01) | -0.08(< 0.01) | -9.61(< 0.05) | -7.29(< 0.05) | -2.48(< 0.01) | -5.38(< 0.01) |
Physically Active | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | -0.85(0.016) | -1.47(< 0.001) | -0.47(< 0.001) | -0.51(< 0.001) | 0.20(< 0.001) | 1.01(< 0.01) | 2.34(< 0.01) | 3.36(< 0.001) |
Arthritis | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 | a1 |
No | 5.74(< 0.001) | 5.90(< 0.001) | 1.04(< 0.001) | 1.00(< 0.001) | 5.60(< 0.001) | 5.80(< 0.001) | 2.33(< 0.001) | 8.59(< 0.001) |
Weight | 0.95(< 0.05) | 0.18(< 0.01) | 0.59(< 0.01) | 0.01(< 0.001) | 7.60(< 0.001) | 8.96(< 0.001) | 4.72(< 0.001) | 5.82(< 0.001) |
Height | 0.04(< 0.05) | 0.45(< 0.05) | 0.38(< 0.01) | 0.03(< 0.001) | 4.25(< 0.001) | 4.49(< 0.001) | 2.43(< 0.001) | 3.59(< 0.001) |
BMI | 0.89(< 0.05) | 0.11(< 0.05) | 0.02(< 0.05) | 0.01(< 0.05) | 1.81(< 0.05) | 1.59(< 0.05) | 2.54(< 0.05) | 2.72(< 0.05) |
Stroke | | | | | | | | |
Yes | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 |
No | | 2.10(< 0.05) | | 0.41(< 0.001) | | 4.90(< 0.001) | | 4.88(< 0.001) |
Alcohol | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | |
No | 0.05(< 0.05) | | 0.02(< 0.05) | | 0.54(< 0.01) | | 0.67(< 0.05) | |
Hypertension | | | | | | | | |
Yes | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | |
No | 1.37(< 0.01) | | 0.20(< 0.001) | | 1.15(< 0.001) | | 1.08(< 0.05) | |
Hand Dom. | | | | | | | | |
Left | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 | | a1 |
Right | | 2.99(< 0.001) | | 0.29(< 0.001) | | 3.25(< 0.001) | | 3.84(< 0.001) |
Both | | 5.95(< 0.001) | | 5.93(< 0.01) | | 4.93(< 0.01) | | 4.19(< 0.01) |
Transformations | | | | | | | | |
Log. Weight | | | 3.01(< 0.001) | 2.80(< 0.001) | | | 6.57(< 0.001) | 7.45(< 0.001) |
Log. Height | | | 0.53(< 0.001) | 0.74(< 0.001) | | | 3.09(< 0.001) | 2.90(< 0.001) |
Phy. Act. & Arth | | | | | | | | |
No Phy.: Act: No | | | -0.43(< 0.001) | -0.44(< 0.001) | | | -2.64(< 0.01) | -2.98(< 0.01) |
Sex & Arthritis | | | | | | | | |
Female: Arthritis | | | -0.24(< 0.05) | -0.21(< 0.05) | | | -2.92(< 0.01) | -2.56(< 0.01) |
Age & Sex | | | | | | | | |
60–89: Female | | | -0.06(< 0.01) | -0.06(< 0.05) | | | -0.72(< 0.01) | -0.32(< 0.001) |
90–115:Female | | | -0.54(< 0.01) | -0.58(< 0.05) | | | -1.49(< 0.01) | -0.48(< 0.001) |
Sex & Depression | | | | | | | | |
Female: No | | | -1.42(< 0.001) | -1.30(< 0.001) | | | -2.84(< 0.01) | -2.84(< 0.001) |
Diagnostics | | | | | | | | |
Heteroscedasticity | 44.44(< 0.01) | 42.43(< 0.05) | 48.02(< 0.05) | 49.36(< 0.05) | | | | |
Autocorrelation | 1.65(< 0.001) | 1.69(< 0.001) | 1.65(< 0.001) | 1.69(< 0.001) | | | | |
Normality | 0.93(< 0.001) | 0.94(< 0.001) | 0.93(< 0.001) | 0.94(< 0.001) | | | | |
VIF | < 5 | < 5 | > 5 | > 5 | | | | |
Intercept | 11.42(< 0.001) | 13.68(< 0.001) | -13.14(< 0.001) | -13.23(< 0.001) | 12.35(< 0.001) | 13.13(< 0.001) | -15.44(< 0.001) | -16.21(< 0.001) |
F-value | 64.30(< 0.001) | 62.54(< 0.001) | 64.98(< 0.001) | 65.33(< 0.001) | | | | |
R2 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.58 | 0.59 | 0.62 | 0.65 | 0.67 | 0.69 |
Source: SAGE, Wave 1 (Ghana), 2007–2008 |
Note: ꞵ denotes coefficients which appear before the p-values (indicated in the parentheses); |
BMI represents body mass index; |
Hand Dom represents hand dominance |
log. represents logarithms |
Phy. Act. represents physically active
Arth. represents arthritis
VIF represents multicollinearity
a1 represents reference level
p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001, statistical significance between left and right hands