Fish species transshipped at sea (Saiko sh) in Ghana with a note on implications for marine conservation

Denis Worlanyo Aheto (  daheto@ucc.edu.gh ) Centre for Coastal Management Africa Centre of Excellence in Coastal Resilience (ACECoR), University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5722-1363 Isaac Okyere (  iokyere@ucc.edu.gh ) Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Ghana https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8725-1555 Noble Kwame Asare Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Ghana Jennifer Eshilley Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Coast, Ghana Justice Odoiquaye Odoi Nature Today, A25 Standards Estates, Sakumono, Tema, Ghana


Introduction
Fish is a major source of protein for Africans who consume about 21% of global sh output (FAO, 2016).
Regrettably, with the increased demand for seafood globally, the oceans have been intensely overexploited of certain sh species by both industrial and small-scale artisanal shers. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2016), 31% of global sh stocks were over shed or shed unsustainably, as of 2013, while another 58% were "fully shed". In West Africa, industrial vessels compete with small-scale artisanal boats for same sh species and shing grounds putting more pressure on sh populations. Consequently, sh stocks have declined, and artisanal shers are working in increasingly di cult conditions. This threatens the livelihoods and food security of smallscale shing communities in the region.
In Ghana, the challenges have birthed a new practice of transshipment at-sea; locally referred to as saiko. The term saiko was originally derived from Japanese industrial trawlers, whose vessels discarded their bycatch which they considered useless and thrown into the sea to create room for storage in exchange for food items and other valuables. The Japanese words "saite" and "saiko" were used to distinguish between "bad" and "good" sh respectively. The practice is literally legitimized in Elmina because the saiko operators have formed an association and appointed executives. The saiko boats are marked to distinguish them from the other artisanal shing boats, with the operators having operational arrangements with the Ghana Industrial Trawlers Association (GITA).
Transshipment is the act of transferring the catch from one shing vessel to either another shing vessel or to a vessel used solely for the carriage of cargo (EJF, 2018). Saiko involves the transshipment of frozen by-catch from industrial shing vessels to small-scale artisanal canoes without supervision, which is prohibited under the sheries laws of Ghana (Fisheries Act 625, 2002). The Fisheries Regulation 2010 (LI 1968) further outlaws the practice of saiko. Though it is deemed illegal, saiko has been described as having a 'double-edged sword' effect, being positive and useful in one scenario and negative and destructive in another. While some authors such as Nunoo et al. (2009) earlier suggested that by-catch which was deemed thrash sh (saiko) was treasure for shers, latter workers such as Lazar et al. (2018) have argued that saiko is a major contributor to sh stock collapse in the country.
Resource managers and researchers have also argued that saiko is problematic from an ecological perspective and violates conservation and sustainable management measures. They contend that, saiko is a barrier when trying to determine if the sh has been caught legally. Saiko exacerbate the issue of over shing and threatens effective management of sheries. Transshipment at-sea has strong links with illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) shing activities and other crimes including money laundering, transport of drugs, and human tra cking.
Industrial trawlers now deliberately target by-catch species, including juveniles, to sell to small-scale shers. This aggravates over shing leading to possible extinction of some sh species and stock collapse. According to the FAO (2010) "Bycatch is of concern when it comprises a signi cant proportion of the capture in a speci c shery, or when, across all sheries, it comprises a large proportion of the catch in a shery". Indeed, saiko is also putting the industrial shing vessels in direct competition with majority of the small-scale shers for catches and if the practice continues, Ghana's long-standing 'seek and capture' traditional shing vocation may be lost (Atta-Mills et al., 2004), since transshipment is becoming the preferred method for some shing communities. Illegal, unreported and unregulated shing is a substantial global problem threatening ecosystems, food security, and livelihoods around the world.
To reduce IUU shing, it is important to address the challenges associated with transshipment.
Saiko is a poorly researched issue considering its impact on Ghana's sheries. Categorizing species composition and diversity from the saiko catches will enhance understanding of the ecological implications of the practice and inform regulatory enforcement and policy formulation. To date no systematic, comprehensive and empirical research exist on saiko shery focusing on the diversity of species transshipped, maturity and conservation status of the species harvested. To increase our understanding of the implications of the practice on marine sheries conservation, we sought to assess sh species composition, habitat categorization, maturity and conservation status of the saiko sh samples which are important determinants of ecosystem productivity and ecological stability. The information is also needed for formulating policy and management decisions. It is anticipated that the results of this study will give a comprehensively informed outlook on IUU shing practices and inform researchers, policy makers and resource managers on the need to develop policies and management options to safeguard sheries resources in West Africa and beyond.

Study area
This study was conducted from February 2016 to June 2018 in Elmina (5°5 0 N 1°21 0 W) ( Fig. 1a & b) which is the third largest sh landing site in Ghana (Aheto et al., 2012). Elmina was purposively selected because it contributes about 15% of the country's total sh output (Hen Mpoano, 2015a) and has the highest intensity of saiko operations in the country (Hen Mpoano, 2015b).). Being a historic shing community where shing dates to the 1400s (Odotei, 1992), the Elmina sh landing harbor provides a very good landing quay for all types of canoes and small semi-industrial boats engaged in traditional sheries. In 2013, it was estimated that, there were 5890 shermen and 411 canoes operating in Elmina (Akyeampong et al., 2013).

Data collection
Samples of frozen sh slabs were randomly collected from saiko canoes at the saiko landing site within the Elmina sh landing quay every fortnight over a period of six months between November 2016 and June 2017. Samples were not taken in February and March 2017 due to the industrial shing closed season implementation in the country. A total of 4,713 saiko sh specimens were sampled. On each sampling occasion, collected sh were identi ed and classi ed using taxonomic manuals on shes in the coastal waters of Ghana (Kwei and Adu-Ofori, 2005) and in the Gulf of Guinea (Schneider, 1990). The total length (TL) of n sh was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a sh measuring board, while carapace length for crabs and mantle length for cephalopods were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using a Vernier caliper. Total length of n sh was measured from the tip of the snout to the end of the caudal n, mantle length of cephalopods was measured from the anterior edge of the mantle to the posterior end, while carapace length of crabs was measured from the anterior end to the posterior end of the carapace. The weight of each specimen was recorded to the nearest 0.01 g using a digital balance.
Desktop study was carried out to establish the habitat and niches for each of the species following which the sh were classi ed into pelagic, demersal, benthic, neritic, benthopelagic, pelagic-neritic, semi-pelagic; bathydemersal and reef associated. Furthermore, the status of each of the species on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species was determined. The maturity size of sh species with a sample size of 100 or more was determined by comparing with other studies.

Data analysis
Total length of each species was analysed based on their ranges. Percentage composition of sh species by habitat, numerical dominance and status on the IUCN red list were analysed and presented in pie charts. The proportions (%) of juvenile and mature sh in the samples by species were estimated and tabulated.

Results
3.1 Composition of species in the transshipped (saiko) sh samples Table 1 provides information on the saiko sh samples. A total of sixty-eight (68) sh species from 44 families were identi ed comprising n sh and shell sh of pelagic (P), semi-pelagic (SP), demersal (D), neritic (N), benthopelagic (BP) and reef associated species (RF) among others. The commonest among these are the round scad Decapterus punctatus (Carangidae), the mackerel scad Caranx rhonchus (Carangidae), the round sardine Sardinella aurita (Clupeidae) and the red pandora Pagellus bellottii (Sparidae) which are also very important in Ghana's small-scale sheries. Alloteuthis africana ( In relation to habitats and niches occupied by the sh within the marine environment (Fig. 2), 44 out of the 68 species representing 65% were of demersal origin, 9% were pelagic species while a similar 9% were species associated with reef habitats. The rest were from diverse niches spanning across semi-pelagic, benthic and neritic zones of the ocean.
Analysis of status of the saiko sh on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species showed that 5% were Near Threatened (NT) while 5% were Vulnerable (VU) (Fig. 4).

Habitat and numerical composition of transshipped sh species
The transshipped sh comprised pelagic, semi-pelagic, demersal, neritic, benthopelagic and reef associated species. The occurrence of sh from such a wide range of biotopes primarily suggests that the industrial trawl shery is non-selective, and this could have a multiplicity of ecological effects on the marine communities and the ecosystem at large (Agardy, 2000). Importantly, the practice of " shing down the food webs" through indiscriminate shing of high trophic level bottom shes together with low trophic level pelagic shes by the trawlers could have potentially damaging effects on the marine ecosystem (Pauly et al., 1998). As indicated by Pauly et al. (1998) as well as Pauly and Palomares (2005), such patterns of exploitation are unsustainable although pervasive.
Although demersal sh had a diversity of 44 species, pelagic sh with a diversity of 6 species were numerically dominant constituting nearly 50% of the saiko landings. While the occurrence of a signi cant number of demersal species in the catch may not be of concern because these are the targeted species of the trawlers, the landing of large quantities of pelagic shes raises fundamental issues of gear design, selectivity and illegality of the operations in relation to Ghana's sheries regulations. This is because the industrial trawl vessels which transship the sh to artisanal canoes are licensed to operate only as bottom trawlers offshore targeting demersal stocks. It is claimed by the shers that the small pelagics and other shes traded as saiko commodity are bycatch or trash sh, but this has been argued by Nunoo et al. (2009) that the supposedly trash sh has become treasure due to the increasing demand of the commodity, hence, the industrial bottom trawl eets are now targeting pelagic stocks than ever.

Composition of juveniles in transshipped sh
Of a more serious concern is the preponderance of juveniles of both pelagic and demersal species in the catches. All specimens of the ounder Bothus podas, the sea bream Pagellus bellottii, and the horse mackerel Trachurus trecae sampled from the catches were immature while over 70% of others such as Caranx rhonchus and round sardine Sardinella aurita were also juveniles when compared with their reported maturity sizes in literature (e.g. Sley et al., 2015 for Caranx rhonchus;Osei, 2015 for Sardinella aurita; Asabere-Ameyaw, 2000 for Pagellus bellottii, etc. see Table 2). Harvesting signi cant proportion of juveniles of such important sh as Sardinella aurita which forms the back bone of Ghana's marine shery gravely puts the country's shery in a jeopardy. Already, Ghana's marine small pelagic sh stocks including S. aurita have declined signi cantly over the last two decades with projections pointing to a possible collapse in the year 2020 (Lazar et al., 2018), and the contribution of the saiko operations to this precarious situation cannot be underemphasised as the practice has equally progressed over two decades.
Again, the occurrence of appreciable quantities of immature sh in the catches of the industrial trawlers raises questions of compliance with designated shing grounds for industrial trawling, prescribed mesh sizes of trawl nets and other regulations. Section 81(3) of Ghana's Fisheries Act 625 (2002) prohibits shing by trawlers within the Inshore Economic Zone (IEZ -de ned by 30-metre isobath or the 6 nautical miles offshore limit); the zone within which spawning and nursery activities of small pelagics occur.
Being an exclusively reserved zone for small scale shers, cases of livelihood con icts continually ensue between the artisanal shermen and industrial trawlers within the zone (Ameyaw, 2017). It is therefore di cult to assimilate that juveniles of small pelagics in trawl catches are incidental or by-catch rather than target sh. Granted, that these are by-catch, Section 89 (1) of the Act (2002), as well as Section 31 (1) of the Fisheries Regulation 2010 (L.I. 1968), requires persons who catch juvenile sh as by-catch to release them immediately to their natural environment in a manner that causes them no harm. Therefore, the apparent harvest and sale of juvenile sh in the saiko business suggests a deliberate non-compliance with the sheries laws. It is also conceivable that the trawl shers do not adhere to using the minimum mesh size of 60 mm prescribed in the Act for industrial trawl nets in the country, questioning sustainability of the practice. 4.3 Status of the saiko sh species on the IUCN red list and implications for marine conservation Fish transshipment is a major form of IUU in West Africa and therefore of immense international concern (EJF, 2018). Indeed, IUU shing practices in particular have threatened sheries conservation efforts around the globe (FAO, 2016). According to IUCN (2019), the issue of IUU is a global concern because it threatens sh stocks, the ocean biodiversity and the incomes of sustainable sheries. The vulnerable sh species identi ed in this study are Balistes punctatus, Balistes capriscus, and Pseudupeneus prayensis, while the near-threatened are Cynoglossus senegalensis, Brachydeuterus auritus and Dentex angolensis. Though the proportion of near threatened species (5%) and vulnerable (5%) as categorized on the IUCN red list were low, it is important to note that they are the next category to become endangered so efforts should be made to conserve them. The practice is also inimical to marine conservation given the nonselective nature of the trawl shery which depletes sh stocks. The trawl drags on sea oor and impacts on critical habitats affecting productivity, biodiversity and marine food webs (Hen Mpoano, 2015b).

Conclusions
Pelagic sh constituted about 50% of total saiko sh landed. This imply serious consequences for the sustainability of the artisanal sheries sector in Ghana. Harvesting of threatened and vulnerable species also raises legitimate concerns about conservation of marine sh stocks in Ghanaian waters. The ndings raise a number of issues including gear design and selectivity in the industrial trawl shery in the face of a near collapse of the small pelagic shery. The need to recognize that saiko harms the marine environment and the consequent commitment by regulators and relevant stakeholders to eliminate the practice in Ghana's waters is therefore imperative. If unchecked, the socioeconomic implications are equally costly as it borders on the loss of livelihoods and income of about an estimated three million Ghanaians dependent on the shery.

Recommendations
Fisheries management planning and enforcement targeted at curbing the saiko practice must be based on accurate data and the evaluation of the ecological impacts raised in this research. There is an urgent need for the creation and implementation of a national action plan against saiko and other forms of IUU through government inter-ministerial approach. National efforts to eradicate saiko should be based on consensus by government, industry and civil society actors. Speci cally institutions such as the Attorney General's Department, Fisheries Enforcement Unit (FEU), Fisheries Associations, chief shermen, traditional authorities and NGOs should play crucial roles. They should be tasked to formulate and implement a coherent but multi-disciplinary national plan of action towards saiko and other forms of IUU prevention including a monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Finally, we recommend a legislative revision of the industrial trawl gear mesh size to above 60 mm at the codend.  Status of saiko sh species on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species